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Tomarchio EG, Turnaturi R, Saccullo E, Patamia V, Floresta G, Zagni C, Rescifina A. Tetrazine-trans-cyclooctene ligation: Unveiling the chemistry and applications within the human body. Bioorg Chem 2024; 150:107573. [PMID: 38905885 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2024.107573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2024] [Revised: 06/11/2024] [Accepted: 06/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/23/2024]
Abstract
Bioorthogonal reactions have revolutionized chemical biology by enabling selective chemical transformations within living organisms and cells. This review comprehensively explores bioorthogonal chemistry, emphasizing inverse-electron-demand Diels-Alder (IEDDA) reactions between tetrazines and strained dienophiles and their crucial role in chemical biology and various applications within the human body. This highly reactive and selective reaction finds diverse applications, including cleaving antibody-drug conjugates, prodrugs, proteins, peptide antigens, and enzyme substrates. The versatility extends to hydrogel chemistry, which is crucial for biomedical applications, yet it faces challenges in achieving precise cellularization. In situ activation of cytotoxic compounds from injectable biopolymer belongs to the click-activated protodrugs against cancer (CAPAC) platform, an innovative approach to tumor-targeted prodrug delivery and activation. The CAPAC platform, relying on click chemistry between trans-cyclooctene (TCO) and tetrazine-modified biopolymers, exhibits modularity across diverse tumor characteristics, presenting a promising approach in anticancer therapeutics. The review highlights the importance of bioorthogonal reactions in developing radiopharmaceuticals for positron emission tomography (PET) imaging and theranostics, offering a promising avenue for diverse therapeutic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabetta Grazia Tomarchio
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, V.le A. Doria 6, 95125 Catania, Italy; Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Via Santa Sofia 97, 95123 Catania, Italy
| | - Rita Turnaturi
- Institute of Cristallography CNR-IC, Via Paolo Gaifami 18, 95126 Catania, Italy
| | - Erika Saccullo
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, V.le A. Doria 6, 95125 Catania, Italy; Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Via Santa Sofia 97, 95123 Catania, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Patamia
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, V.le A. Doria 6, 95125 Catania, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Floresta
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, V.le A. Doria 6, 95125 Catania, Italy
| | - Chiara Zagni
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, V.le A. Doria 6, 95125 Catania, Italy.
| | - Antonio Rescifina
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, V.le A. Doria 6, 95125 Catania, Italy
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Pandey KK, Sahoo BR, Pattnaik AK. Protein Nanoparticles as Vaccine Platforms for Human and Zoonotic Viruses. Viruses 2024; 16:936. [PMID: 38932228 PMCID: PMC11209504 DOI: 10.3390/v16060936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2024] [Revised: 05/31/2024] [Accepted: 06/07/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Vaccines are one of the most effective medical interventions, playing a pivotal role in treating infectious diseases. Although traditional vaccines comprise killed, inactivated, or live-attenuated pathogens that have resulted in protective immune responses, the negative consequences of their administration have been well appreciated. Modern vaccines have evolved to contain purified antigenic subunits, epitopes, or antigen-encoding mRNAs, rendering them relatively safe. However, reduced humoral and cellular responses pose major challenges to these subunit vaccines. Protein nanoparticle (PNP)-based vaccines have garnered substantial interest in recent years for their ability to present a repetitive array of antigens for improving immunogenicity and enhancing protective responses. Discovery and characterisation of naturally occurring PNPs from various living organisms such as bacteria, archaea, viruses, insects, and eukaryotes, as well as computationally designed structures and approaches to link antigens to the PNPs, have paved the way for unprecedented advances in the field of vaccine technology. In this review, we focus on some of the widely used naturally occurring and optimally designed PNPs for their suitability as promising vaccine platforms for displaying native-like antigens from human viral pathogens for protective immune responses. Such platforms hold great promise in combating emerging and re-emerging infectious viral diseases and enhancing vaccine efficacy and safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kush K. Pandey
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68583, USA; (K.K.P.); (B.R.S.)
- Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68583, USA
| | - Bikash R. Sahoo
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68583, USA; (K.K.P.); (B.R.S.)
- Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68583, USA
| | - Asit K. Pattnaik
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68583, USA; (K.K.P.); (B.R.S.)
- Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68583, USA
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Liu S, Yan Z, Huang Z, Yang H, Li J. Smart Nanocarriers for the Treatment of Retinal Diseases. ACS APPLIED BIO MATERIALS 2024; 7:2070-2085. [PMID: 38489843 DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.3c01289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/17/2024]
Abstract
Retinal diseases, such as age-related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, and retinoblastoma, stand as the leading causes of irreversible vision impairment and blindness worldwide. Effectively administering drugs for retinal diseases poses a formidable challenge due to the presence of complex ocular barriers and elimination mechanisms. Over time, various approaches have been developed to fabricate drug delivery systems for improving retinal therapy including virus vectors, lipid nanoparticles, and polymers. However, conventional nanocarriers encounter issues related to the controllability, efficiency, and safety in the retina. Therefore, the development of smart nanocarriers for effective or more invasive long-term treatment remains a desirable goal. Recently, approaches have surfaced for the intelligent design of nanocarriers, leveraging specific responses to external or internal triggers and enabling multiple functions for retinal therapy such as topical administration, prolonged drug release, and site-specific drug delivery. This Review provides an overview of prevalent retinal pathologies and related pharmacotherapies to enhance the understanding of retinal diseases. It also surveys recent developments and strategies employed in the intelligent design of nanocarriers for retinal disease. Finally, the challenges of smart nanocarriers in potential clinical retinal therapeutic applications are discussed to inspire the next generation of smart nanocarriers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuya Liu
- MOE Key Laboratory for Analytical Science of Food Safety and Biology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Analysis and Detection Technology for Food Safety, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350116, P. R. China
| | - Zhike Yan
- MOE Key Laboratory for Analytical Science of Food Safety and Biology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Analysis and Detection Technology for Food Safety, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350116, P. R. China
| | - Zixiang Huang
- MOE Key Laboratory for Analytical Science of Food Safety and Biology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Analysis and Detection Technology for Food Safety, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350116, P. R. China
| | - Huanghao Yang
- MOE Key Laboratory for Analytical Science of Food Safety and Biology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Analysis and Detection Technology for Food Safety, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350116, P. R. China
| | - Jingying Li
- College of Biological Science and Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350116, P. R. China
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McGary LC, Regan GL, Bearne SL. Reactive architecture profiling with a methyl acyl phosphate electrophile. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA. PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2023; 1871:140945. [PMID: 37536394 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2023.140945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2023] [Revised: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 07/31/2023] [Indexed: 08/05/2023]
Abstract
Activity-based protein profiling has facilitated the study of the activity of enzymes in proteomes, inhibitor development, and identification of enzymes that share mechanistic and active-site architectural features. Since methyl acyl phosphate monoesters act as electrostatically selective anionic electrophiles for the covalent modification of nucleophiles that reside adjacent to cationic sites in proteins, we synthesized methyl hex-5-ynoyl phosphate (MHP) to broadly target such protein architectures. After treating the soluble proteome of Paucimonas lemoignei with MHP, biotinylating the resulting acylated proteins using click chemistry, enriching the protein adducts using streptavidin, and analyzing the proteins by LC-MS/MS, a set of 240 enzymes and 132 non-enzyme proteins were identified for a wide spectrum of biological processes and from all 7 enzyme classes. Among those enzymes identified, β-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase (PlHBDH) and CTP synthase (E. coli orthologue, EcCTPS) were purified as recombinant enzymes and their rates of inactivation and sites of modification by MHP and methyl acetyl phosphate (MAP) were characterized. MHP reacted more slowly with these proteins than MAP but exhibited greater specificity, despite its lack of multiple binding determinants. Generally, MAP modified more surface residues than MHP. MHP specifically modified Ser 146, Lys 156, and Lys 163 at the active site of PlHBDH. MHP and MAP modified numerous residues of EcCTPS with CTP furnishing the greatest level of protection against MHP- and MAP-dependent modification and inactivation, respectively, followed by ATP and glutamine. Overall, MHP served as an effective probe to identify proteins that are potentially amenable to inhibition by methyl acyl phosphates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura C McGary
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada
| | - Gemma L Regan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada
| | - Stephen L Bearne
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada; Department of Chemistry, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada.
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Ramos-Llorca A, Decraecker L, Cacheux VMY, Zeiburlina I, De bruyn M, Battut L, Moreno-Cinos C, Ceradini D, Espinosa E, Dietrich G, Berg M, De Meester I, Van Der Veken P, Boeckxstaens G, Lambeir AM, Denadai-Souza A, Augustyns K. Chemically diverse activity-based probes with unexpected inhibitory mechanisms targeting trypsin-like serine proteases. Front Chem 2023; 10:1089959. [PMID: 36688031 PMCID: PMC9849758 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2022.1089959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Activity-based probes (ABP) are molecules that bind covalently to the active form of an enzyme family, making them an attractive tool for target and biomarker identification and drug discovery. The present study describes the synthesis and biochemical characterization of novel activity-based probes targeting trypsin-like serine proteases. We developed an extensive library of activity-based probes with "clickable" affinity tags and a diaryl phosphonate warhead. A wide diversity was achieved by including natural amino acid analogs as well as basic polar residues as side chains. A detailed enzymatic characterization was performed in a panel of trypsin-like serine proteases. Their inhibitory potencies and kinetic profile were examined, and their IC50 values, mechanism of inhibition, and kinetic constants were determined. The activity-based probes with a benzyl guanidine side chain showed the highest inhibitory effects in the panel. Surprisingly, some of the high-affinity probes presented a reversible inhibitory mechanism. On the other hand, probes with different side chains exhibited the expected irreversible mechanism. For the first time, we demonstrate that not only irreversible probes but also reversible probes can tightly label recombinant proteases and proteases released from human mast cells. Even under denaturing SDS-PAGE conditions, reversible slow-tight-binding probes can label proteases due to the formation of high-affinity complexes and slow dissociation rates. This unexpected finding will transform the view on the required irreversible nature of activity-based probes. The diversity of this library of activity-based probes combined with a detailed enzyme kinetic characterization will advance their applications in proteomic studies and drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alba Ramos-Llorca
- Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical, Biomedical and Veterinary Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Lisse Decraecker
- Laboratory for Intestinal Neuroimmune Interactions, Translational Research Center for Gastrointestinal Disorders, Department of Chronic Diseases, Metabolism and Ageing, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Valérie M. Y. Cacheux
- Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical, Biomedical and Veterinary Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Irena Zeiburlina
- Laboratory for Intestinal Neuroimmune Interactions, Translational Research Center for Gastrointestinal Disorders, Department of Chronic Diseases, Metabolism and Ageing, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Michelle De bruyn
- Laboratory of Medical Biochemistry, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical, Biomedical and Veterinary Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Louise Battut
- IRSD, Université de Toulouse, INSERM, INRA, ENVT, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Carlos Moreno-Cinos
- Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical, Biomedical and Veterinary Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | | | - Eric Espinosa
- IRSD, Université de Toulouse, INSERM, INRA, ENVT, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Gilles Dietrich
- IRSD, Université de Toulouse, INSERM, INRA, ENVT, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Maya Berg
- Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical, Biomedical and Veterinary Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Ingrid De Meester
- Laboratory of Medical Biochemistry, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical, Biomedical and Veterinary Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Pieter Van Der Veken
- Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical, Biomedical and Veterinary Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Guy Boeckxstaens
- Laboratory for Intestinal Neuroimmune Interactions, Translational Research Center for Gastrointestinal Disorders, Department of Chronic Diseases, Metabolism and Ageing, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Anne-Marie Lambeir
- Laboratory of Medical Biochemistry, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical, Biomedical and Veterinary Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Alexandre Denadai-Souza
- Laboratory for Intestinal Neuroimmune Interactions, Translational Research Center for Gastrointestinal Disorders, Department of Chronic Diseases, Metabolism and Ageing, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Koen Augustyns
- Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical, Biomedical and Veterinary Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium,*Correspondence: Koen Augustyns,
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Nisar N, Mir SA, Kareem O, Pottoo FH. Proteomics approaches in the identification of cancer biomarkers and drug discovery. Proteomics 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-323-95072-5.00001-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/01/2023]
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Wang Y, Hu Q. Bio‐Orthogonal Chemistry in Cell Engineering. ADVANCED NANOBIOMED RESEARCH 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/anbr.202200128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Yixin Wang
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Division School of Pharmacy University of Wisconsin-Madison Madison WI 53705 USA
- Carbone Cancer Center School of Medicine and Public Health University of Wisconsin-Madison Madison WI 53705 USA
- Wisconsin Center for NanoBioSystems School of Pharmacy University of Wisconsin-Madison Madison WI 53705 USA
| | - Quanyin Hu
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Division School of Pharmacy University of Wisconsin-Madison Madison WI 53705 USA
- Carbone Cancer Center School of Medicine and Public Health University of Wisconsin-Madison Madison WI 53705 USA
- Wisconsin Center for NanoBioSystems School of Pharmacy University of Wisconsin-Madison Madison WI 53705 USA
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Zhao L, Zhong B, An Y, Zhang W, Gao H, Zhang X, Liang Z, Zhang Y, Zhao Q, Zhang L. Enhanced protein-protein interaction network construction promoted by in vivo cross-linking with acid-cleavable click-chemistry enrichment. Front Chem 2022; 10:994572. [PMID: 36479438 PMCID: PMC9720147 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2022.994572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 11/02/2022] [Indexed: 03/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Chemical cross-linking coupled with mass spectrometry has emerged as a powerful strategy which enables global profiling of protein interactome with direct interaction interfaces in complex biological systems. The alkyne-tagged enrichable cross-linkers are preferred to improve the coverage of low-abundance cross-linked peptides, combined with click chemistry for biotin conjugation to allow the cross-linked peptide enrichment. However, a systematic evaluation on the efficiency of click approaches (protein-based or peptide-based) and diverse cleavable click-chemistry ligands (acid, reduction, and photo) for cross-linked peptide enrichment and release is lacking. Herein, together with in vivo chemical cross-linking by alkyne-tagged cross-linkers, we explored the click-chemistry-based enrichment approaches on protein and peptide levels with three cleavable click-chemistry ligands, respectively. By comparison, the approach of protein-based click-chemistry conjugation with acid-cleavable tags was demonstrated to permit the most cross-linked peptide identification. The advancement of this strategy enhanced the proteome-wide cross-linking analysis, constructing a 5,518-protein-protein-interaction network among 1,871 proteins with widely abundant distribution in cells. Therefore, all these results demonstrated the guideline value of our work for efficient cross-linked peptide enrichment, thus facilitating the in-depth profiling of protein interactome for functional analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lili Zhao
- CAS Key Laboratory of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, National Chromatographic R. & A. Center, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, Liaoning, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Bowen Zhong
- CAS Key Laboratory of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, National Chromatographic R. & A. Center, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, Liaoning, China
| | - Yuxin An
- CAS Key Laboratory of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, National Chromatographic R. & A. Center, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, Liaoning, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Weijie Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, National Chromatographic R. & A. Center, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, Liaoning, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Hang Gao
- CAS Key Laboratory of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, National Chromatographic R. & A. Center, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, Liaoning, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaodan Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, National Chromatographic R. & A. Center, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, Liaoning, China
| | - Zhen Liang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, National Chromatographic R. & A. Center, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, Liaoning, China
| | - Yukui Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, National Chromatographic R. & A. Center, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, Liaoning, China
| | - Qun Zhao
- CAS Key Laboratory of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, National Chromatographic R. & A. Center, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, Liaoning, China
| | - Lihua Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, National Chromatographic R. & A. Center, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, Liaoning, China
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Brandi J, Noberini R, Bonaldi T, Cecconi D. Advances in enrichment methods for mass spectrometry-based proteomics analysis of post-translational modifications. J Chromatogr A 2022; 1678:463352. [PMID: 35896048 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2022.463352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2022] [Revised: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 07/17/2022] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Post-translational modifications (PTMs) occur during or after protein biosynthesis and increase the functional diversity of proteome. They comprise phosphorylation, acetylation, methylation, glycosylation, ubiquitination, sumoylation (among many other modifications), and influence all aspects of cell biology. Mass-spectrometry (MS)-based proteomics is the most powerful approach for PTM analysis. Despite this, it is challenging due to low abundance and labile nature of many PTMs. Hence, enrichment of modified peptides is required for MS analysis. This review provides an overview of most common PTMs and a discussion of current enrichment methods for MS-based proteomics analysis. The traditional affinity strategies, including immunoenrichment, chromatography and protein pull-down, are outlined together with their strengths and shortcomings. Moreover, a special attention is paid to chemical enrichment strategies, such as capture by chemoselective probes, metabolic and chemoenzymatic labelling, which are discussed with an emphasis on their recent progress. Finally, the challenges and future trends in the field are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Brandi
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Verona, Strada le Grazie 15, 37134 Verona, Italy.
| | - Roberta Noberini
- Department of Experimental Oncology, European Institute of Oncology (IEO) IRCCS, Via Adamello 16, 20139 Milano, Italy.
| | - Tiziana Bonaldi
- Department of Experimental Oncology, European Institute of Oncology (IEO) IRCCS, Via Adamello 16, 20139 Milano, Italy; Department of Oncology and Haemato-Oncology, University of Milan, Via Festa del Perdono 7, 20122 Milano, Italy.
| | - Daniela Cecconi
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Verona, Strada le Grazie 15, 37134 Verona, Italy.
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