Fabrication of Supercritical Antisolvent (SAS) Process-Assisted Fisetin-Encapsulated Poly (Vinyl Pyrrolidone) (PVP) Nanocomposites for Improved Anticancer Therapy

Mechanochemical Approach to Obtaining a Multicomponent Fisetin Delivery System Improving Its Solubility and Biological Activity

In this study, binary amorphous solid dispersions (ASDs, fisetin-Eudragit®) and ternary amorphous solid inclusions (ASIs, fisetin-Eudragit®-HP-β-cyclodextrin) of fisetin (FIS) were prepared by the mechanochemical method without solvent. The amorphous nature of FIS in ASDs and ASIs was confirmed using XRPD (X-ray powder diffraction). DSC (Differential scanning calorimetry) confirmed full miscibility of multicomponent delivery systems. FT-IR (Fourier-transform infrared analysis) confirmed interactions that stabilize FIS's amorphous state and identified the functional groups involved. The study culminated in evaluating the impact of amorphization on water solubility and conducting in vitro antioxidant assays: 2,2-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)-ABTS, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl-DPPH, Cupric Reducing Antioxidant Capacity-CUPRAC, and Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power-FRAP and in vitro neuroprotective assays: inhibition of acetylcholinesterase-AChE and butyrylcholinesterase-BChE. In addition, molecular docking allowed for the determination of possible bonds and interactions between FIS and the mentioned above enzymes. The best preparation turned out to be ASI_30_EPO (ASD fisetin-Eudragit® containing 30% FIS in combination with HP-β-cyclodextrin), which showed an improvement in apparent solubility (126.5 ± 0.1 µg∙mL-1) and antioxidant properties (ABTS: IC50 = 10.25 µg∙mL-1, DPPH: IC50 = 27.69 µg∙mL-1, CUPRAC: IC0.5 = 9.52 µg∙mL-1, FRAP: IC0.5 = 8.56 µg∙mL-1) and neuroprotective properties (inhibition AChE: 39.91%, and BChE: 42.62%).

A Fisetin Delivery System for Neuroprotection: A Co-Amorphous Dispersion Prepared in Supercritical Carbon Dioxide

Fisetin (FIS), a senolytic flavonoid, mitigates age-related neuroprotective changes. An amorphous FIS dispersion with a co-carrier was prepared using supercritical fluid extraction with carbon dioxide (scCO2). Characterisation, including powder X-ray diffraction and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, confirmed amorphization and assessed intermolecular interactions. The amorphous FIS dispersion exhibited enhanced solubility, dissolution profiles, and bioavailability compared to the crystalline form. In vitro, the amorphous FIS dispersion demonstrated antioxidant activity (the ABTS, CUPRAC, DDPH, FRAP assays) and neuroprotective effects by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase. FIS modulated gut microbiota, reducing potentially pathogenic gram-negative bacteria without affecting probiotic microflora. These improvements in solubility, antioxidant and neuroprotective activities, and gut microbiome modulation suggest the potential for optimising FIS delivery systems to leverage its health-promoting properties while addressing oral functionality limitations.

Fisetin-In Search of Better Bioavailability-From Macro to Nano Modifications: A Review

As secondary plant metabolites, polyphenols are abundant in fruits and vegetables. They are in high demand because of their many health benefits. However, their low bioavailability makes them complex compounds to use for therapeutic purposes. Due to the limited solubility of phytocompounds, dietary supplements made from them may only be partially effective. Such molecules include fisetin, found in strawberries, and have shown great promise in treating Alzheimer's disease and cancer. Unfortunately, because of their limited water solubility, low absorption, and poor bioavailability, the assistance of nanotechnology is required to allow them to fulfil their potential fully. Here, we provide evidence that nanodelivery methods and structure modifications can improve fisetin bioavailability, which is linked to improvements in therapeutic efficacy. An open question remains as to which nanocarrier should be chosen to meet the abovementioned requirements and be able to enhance fisetin's therapeutic potential to treat a particular disease.

Particle preparation of pharmaceutical compounds using supercritical antisolvent process: current status and future perspectives

The low aqueous solubility and subsequently slow dissolution rate, as well as the poor bioavailability of several active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs), are major challenges in the pharmaceutical industry. In this review, the particle engineering approaches using supercritical carbon dioxide (SC CO₂) as an antisolvent are critically reviewed. The different SC CO₂-based antisolvent processes, such as the gas antisolvent process (GAS), supercritical antisolvent process (SAS), and a solution-enhanced dispersion system (SEDS), are described. The effect of process parameters such as temperature, pressure, solute concentration, nozzle diameter, SC CO₂ flow rate, solvent type, and solution flow rate on the average particle size, particle size distribution, and particle morphology is discussed from the fundamental perspective of the SAS process. The applications of the SAS process in different formulation approaches such as solid dispersion, polymorphs, cocrystallization, inclusion complexation, and encapsulation to enhance the dissolution rate, solubility, and bioavailability are critically reviewed. This review highlights some areas where the SAS process has not been adequately explored yet. This review will be helpful to researchers working in this area or planning to explore SAS process to particle engineering approaches to tackle the challenge of low solubility and subsequently slow dissolution rate and poor bioavailability.

Fisetin-loaded grape-derived nanoparticles improve anticancer efficacy in MOLT-4 cells

PURPOSE

Fisetin (FIS) is a natural flavonoid with anti-proliferative and anti-apoptotic effects on different human cancer cell lines and can be considered a therapeutic agent for ALL treatment. However, FIS has little aqueous solubility and bioavailability, limiting its therapeutic applications. Thus, novel drug delivery systems are needed to improve solubility and bioavailability of FIS. Plant-derived nanoparticles (PDNPs) could be considered a great delivery system for FIS to the target tissues. In this study, we investigated the anti-proliferative and anti-apoptotic effect of free FIS and FIS-loaded Grape-derived Nanoparticles (GDN) FIS-GDN in MOLT-4 cells.

MATERIALS/METHODS

In this study, MOLT-4 cells were treated with increasing concentration of FIS and FIS-GDN and viability of cells were assessed by MTT assay. Additionally, cellular apoptosis rate and related genes expression were evaluated using flow cytometry and Real Time-PCR methods, respectively.

RESULTS

FIS and FIS-GDN decreased cells viability and increased cells apoptosis dose-dependently, but not time dependently. Treatment of MOLT-4 cells with increasing concentrations of FIS and FIS-GDN considerably increased the expression of caspase 3, 8 and 9 and Bax level, and also decreased the expression of Bcl-2. Results indicated an increased apoptosis after increased concentration of FIS and FIS-GDN at 24, 48 and 72 h.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data proposed that FIS and FIS-GDN can induce apoptosis and have antitumor properties in MOLT-4 cells. Furthermore, compared to FIS, FIS-GDN induced more apoptosis in these cells by increasing the solubility and efficiency of FIS. Additionally, GDNs increased FIS effectiveness in proliferation inhibition and apoptosis induction.

Fisetin in Cancer: Attributes, Developmental Aspects, and Nanotherapeutics

Cancer is one of the major causes of mortality, globally. Cancerous cells invade normal cells and metastasize to distant sites with the help of the lymphatic system. There are several mechanisms involved in the development and progression of cancer. Several treatment strategies including the use of phytoconstituents have evolved and been practiced for better therapeutic outcomes against cancer. Fisetin is one such naturally derived flavone that offers numerous pharmacological benefits, i.e., antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiangiogenic, and anticancer properties. It inhibits the rapid growth, invasiveness, and metastasis of tumors by hindering the multiplication of cancer cells, and prompts apoptosis by avoiding cell division related to actuation of caspase-9 and caspase-8. However, its poor bioavailability associated with its extreme hydrophobicity hampers its clinical utility. The issues related to fisetin delivery can be addressed by adapting to the developmental aspects of nanomedicines, such as formulating it into lipid or polymer-based systems, including nanocochleates and liposomes. This review aims to provide in-depth information regarding fisetin as a potential candidate for anticancer therapy, its properties and various formulation strategies.

Electrospun Coaxial Fibers to Optimize the Release of Poorly Water-Soluble Drug

In a drug delivery system, the physicochemical properties of the polymeric matrix have a positive impact on the bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs. In this work, monolithic F1 fibers and coaxial F2 fibers were successfully prepared using polyvinylpyrrolidone as the main polymer matrix for drug loading and the poorly water-soluble curcumin (Cur) as a model drug. The hydrophobic poly (3-hydroxybutyric acid-co-3-hydroxyvaleric acid) (PHBV) was designed as a blank layer to change the hydrophilicity of the fiber and restrain the drug dissolution rate. The curved linear morphology without beads of F1 fibers and the straight linear morphology with few spindles of F2 fibers were characterized using field-emission environmental scanning electron microscopy. The amorphous forms of the drug and its good compatibility with polymeric matrix were verified by X-ray diffraction and attenuated total reflectance Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy. Surface wettability and drug dissolution data showed that the weaker hydrophilicity F2 fibers (31.42° ± 3.07°) had 24 h for Cur dissolution, which was much longer than the better hydrophilic F1 fibers (15.31° ± 2.79°) that dissolved the drug in 4 h.

An overview on the application of supercritical carbon dioxide for the processing of pharmaceuticals

Supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO2) application in the pharmaceutical industry is still undeveloped regardless of significant research interests in this processing medium shown in the last decades. ScCO2 technologies can improve drug solubility, bioavailability, and therapeutic effect. These technologies can lead to the development of new formulations that will contribute to a decrease in drug dose, medication frequency, and increase patients' well-being. Considering the significant decrease in the price of high-pressure equipment and society's growing need for cleaner production and safer products, it is expected that symbiosis between supercritical fluid and pharmaceutical technologies will happen soon. Therefore, this review was focused on the latest contributions of scCO2 technologies to the pharmaceutical field. The main aim was to bring these technologies closer to pharmaceutical specialists. For this purpose, the most commonly used technologies were explained and discussed: the preparation of solid dispersions, polymer impregnation with drugs, and drug micro/nanoparticle production using scCO2.

Nanoformulation Development to Improve the Biopharmaceutical Properties of Fisetin Using Design of Experiment Approach

This study aimed to design an effective nanoparticle-based carrier for the oral delivery of fisetin (FST) with improved biopharmaceutical properties. FST-loaded nanoparticles were prepared with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) by the interfacial deposition method. A central composite design of two independent variables, the concentration of PVA and the amount of PLGA, was applied for the optimization of the preparative parameter. The responses, including average particle size, polydispersity index, encapsulation efficiency, and zeta potential, were assessed. The optimized formulation possessed a mean particle size of 187.9 nm, the polydispersity index of 0.121, encapsulation efficiency of 79.3%, and zeta potential of −29.2 mV. The morphological observation demonstrated a globular shape for particles. Differential scanning calorimetry and powder X-ray diffraction studies confirmed that the encapsulated FST was presented as the amorphous state. The dissolution test indicated a 3.06-fold increase for the accumulating concentrations, and the everted gut sac test showed a 4.9-fold gain for permeability at the duodenum region. In conclusion, the optimized FST-loaded nanoparticle formulation in this work can be developed as an efficient oral delivery system of FST to improve its biopharmaceutic properties.

Nanoparticles and Nanocrystals by Supercritical CO2-Assisted Techniques for Pharmaceutical Applications: A Review

Many active ingredients currently prescribed show limited therapeutic efficacy, mainly due to their dissolution rate inadequate to treat the pathology of interest. A large drug particle size creates an additional problem if a specific site of action in the human body has to be reached. For this reason, active ingredient size reduction using micronization/nanonization techniques is a valid approach to improve the efficacy of active compounds. Supercritical carbon-dioxide-assisted technologies enable the production of different morphologies of different sizes, including nanoparticles and nanocrystals, by modulating operating conditions. Supercritical fluid-based processes have numerous advantages over techniques conventionally employed to produce nanosized particles or crystals, such as reduced use of toxic solvents, which are completely removed from the final product, ensuring safety for patients. Active compounds can be processed alone by supercritical techniques, although polymeric carriers are often added as stabilizers, to control the drug release on the basis of the desired therapeutic effect, as well as to improve drug processability with the chosen technology. This updated review on the application of supercritical micronization/nanonization techniques in the pharmaceutical field aims at highlighting the most effective current results, operating conditions, advantages, and limitations, providing future perspectives.

Preparation of pH-sensitive chitosan/polyvinylpyrrolidone/α-Fe2O3 nanocomposite for drug delivery application: Emphasis on ameliorating restrictions

Chitosan (CS)/polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP)/hematite (α-Fe₂O₃) nanocomposites loaded with Doxorubicin (drug model) were synthesized via an oil-in-water emulsification method to develop a biocompatible and pH-sensitive drug nanocarrier for the first time. A hydrogel, including CS, PVP, and α-Fe₂O₃, was fabricated successfully with glutaraldehyde (GA) as the cross-linker. Incorporating α-Fe₂O₃ into CS/PVP hydrogel improved the pH-sensitivity and developed beneficial hydrogel. FTIR and XRD analysis illustrated physical interactions between polymer-polymer, polymer-drug, and crystalline behavior of prepared nanocomposite. These analyses also confirmed chemical bonding in nanocomposite's structure. The FE-SEM analysis showed successful impregnation of α-Fe₂O₃ into CS/PVP matrix and spherical structure. To clarify the size distribution and surface charge of the drug-loaded nanocomposite (CS/PVP/α-Fe₂O₃/Dox), DLS and zeta analyses were conducted. They showed the mean size of nanocomposites at about 247 nm. Drug-loaded CS/PVP/α-Fe₂O₃ nanocomposite and CS/PVP/Dox were studied for their release behavior and kinetics. Furthermore, the effect of α-Fe₂O₃ on release from CS/PVP/α-Fe₂O₃/Dox nanocomposite was investigated. That showed an increase in encapsulation of Doxorubicin and beneficial release behavior such as slow-release and retention effect. The release from this drug-loaded nanocomposite revealed excellent pH-sensitive and controlled release of the drug. Besides, the in vitro cytotoxicity and cell apoptosis were studied to recognize biological properties. These analyses revealed that drug-loaded nanocomposite caused high inhibition to MCF-7 cells in presence of α-Fe₂O₃ and proved the hematite's anti-cancer effect. By and large, this study confirmed CS/PVP/α-Fe₂O₃ nanocomposites as a potential candidate for the controlled pH-sensitive release of the drug.

Supercritical Antisolvent Process for Pharmaceutical Applications: A Review

The supercritical antisolvent (SAS) technique has been widely employed in the biomedical field, including drug delivery, to obtain drug particles or polymer-based systems of nanometric or micrometric size. The primary purpose of producing SAS particles is to improve the treatment of different pathologies and to better the patient’s compliance. In this context, many active compounds have been micronized to enhance their dissolution rate and bioavailability. Aiming for more effective treatments with reduced side effects caused by drug overdose, the SAS polymer/active principle coprecipitation has mainly been proposed to offer an adequate drug release for specific therapy. The demand for new formulations with reduced side effects on the patient’s health is still growing; in this context, the SAS technique is a promising tool to solve existing issues in the biomedical field. This updated review on the use of the SAS process for clinical applications provides useful information about the achievements, the most effective polymeric carriers, and parameters, as well as future perspectives.