1
|
Le PH, Linklater DP, Medina AA, MacLaughlin S, Crawford RJ, Ivanova EP. Impact of multiscale surface topography characteristics on Candida albicans biofilm formation: From cell repellence to fungicidal activity. Acta Biomater 2024; 177:20-36. [PMID: 38342192 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2024.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2023] [Revised: 01/21/2024] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 02/13/2024]
Abstract
While there has been significant research conducted on bacterial colonization on implant materials, with a focus on developing surface modifications to prevent the formation of bacterial biofilms, the study of Candida albicans biofilms on implantable materials is still in its infancy, despite its growing relevance in implant-associated infections. C. albicans fungal infections represent a significant clinical concern due to their severity and associated high fatality rate. Pathogenic yeasts account for an increasing proportion of implant-associated infections, since Candida spp. readily form biofilms on medical and dental device surfaces. In addition, these biofilms are highly antifungal-resistant, making it crucial to explore alternative solutions for the prevention of Candida implant-associated infections. One promising approach is to modify the surface properties of the implant, such as the wettability and topography of these substrata, to prevent the initial Candida attachment to the surface. This review summarizes recent research on the effects of surface wettability, roughness, and architecture on Candida spp. attachment to implantable materials. The nanofabrication of material surfaces are highlighted as a potential method for the prevention of Candida spp. attachment and biofilm formation on medical implant materials. Understanding the mechanisms by which Candida spp. attach to surfaces will allow such surfaces to be designed such that the incidence and severity of Candida infections in patients can be significantly reduced. Most importantly, this approach could also substantially reduce the need to use antifungals for the prevention and treatment of these infections, thereby playing a crucial role in minimizing the possibility contributing to instances of antimicrobial resistance. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: In this review we provide a systematic analysis of the role that surface characteristics, such as wettability, roughness, topography and architecture, play on the extent of C. albicans cells attachment that will occur on biomaterial surfaces. We show that exploiting bioinspired surfaces could significantly contribute to the prevention of antimicrobial resistance to antifungal and chemical-based preventive measures. By reducing the attachment and growth of C. albicans cells using surface structure approaches, we can decrease the need for antifungals, which are conventionally used to treat such infections.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Phuc H Le
- School of Science, STEM College, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia; ARC Research Hub for Australian Steel Manufacturing, Melbourne, VIC 3001, Australia
| | - Denver P Linklater
- School of Science, STEM College, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia; ARC Research Hub for Australian Steel Manufacturing, Melbourne, VIC 3001, Australia; Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Graeme Clark Institute, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Arturo Aburto Medina
- School of Science, STEM College, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia
| | - Shane MacLaughlin
- ARC Research Hub for Australian Steel Manufacturing, Melbourne, VIC 3001, Australia; BlueScope Steel Research, Port Kembla, NSW 2505, Australia
| | - Russell J Crawford
- School of Science, STEM College, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia
| | - Elena P Ivanova
- School of Science, STEM College, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia; ARC Research Hub for Australian Steel Manufacturing, Melbourne, VIC 3001, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Penman R, Kariuki R, Shaw ZL, Dekiwadia C, Christofferson AJ, Bryant G, Vongsvivut J, Bryant SJ, Elbourne A. Gold nanoparticle adsorption alters the cell stiffness and cell wall bio-chemical landscape of Candida albicans fungal cells. J Colloid Interface Sci 2024; 654:390-404. [PMID: 37852025 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2023.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Revised: 09/08/2023] [Accepted: 10/04/2023] [Indexed: 10/20/2023]
Abstract
HYPOTHESIS Nanomaterials have been extensively investigated for a wide range of biomedical applications, including as antimicrobial agents, drug delivery vehicles, and diagnostic devices. The commonality between these biomedical applications is the necessity for the nanoparticle to interact with or pass through the cellular wall and membrane. Cell-nanomaterial interactions/uptake can occur in various ways, including adhering to the cell wall, forming aggregates on the surface, becoming absorbed within the cell wall itself, or transversing into the cell cytoplasm. These interactions are common to mammalian cells, bacteria, and yeast cells. This variety of interactions can cause changes to the integrity of the cell wall and the cell overall, but the precise mechanisms underpinning such interactions remain poorly understood. Here, we investigate the interaction between commonly investigated gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and the cell wall/membrane of a model fungal cell to explore the general effects of interaction and uptake. EXPERIMENTS The interactions between 100 nm citrate-capped AuNPs and the cell wall of Candida albicans fungal cells were studied using a range of advanced microscopy techniques, including atomic force microscopy, confocal laser scanning microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and synchrotron-FTIR micro-spectroscopy. FINDINGS In most cases, particles adhered on the cell surface, although instances of particles being up-taken into the cell cytoplasm and localised within the cell wall and membrane were also observed. There was a measurable increase in the stiffness of the fungal cell after AuNPs were introduced. Analysis of the synchrotron-FTIR data showed significant changes in spectral features associated with phospholipids and proteins after exposure to AuNPs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rowan Penman
- School of Science, STEM College, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3001, Australia
| | - Rashad Kariuki
- School of Science, STEM College, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3001, Australia
| | - Z L Shaw
- School of Engineering, STEM College, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3001, Australia
| | - Chaitali Dekiwadia
- RMIT Microscopy and Microanalysis Facility (RMMF), RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria 3001, Australia
| | | | - Gary Bryant
- School of Science, STEM College, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3001, Australia
| | - Jitraporn Vongsvivut
- Infrared Microspectroscopy (IRM) Beamline, ANSTO - Australian Synchrotron, Clayton, VIC 3168, Australia
| | - Saffron J Bryant
- School of Science, STEM College, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3001, Australia.
| | - Aaron Elbourne
- School of Science, STEM College, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3001, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Di Lodovico S, Petrini M, D'Amico E, Di Fermo P, Diban F, D'Arcangelo S, Piattelli A, Cellini L, Iezzi G, Di Giulio M, D'Ercole S. Complex magnetic fields represent an eco-sustainable technology to counteract the resistant Candida albicans growth without affecting the human gingival fibroblasts. Sci Rep 2023; 13:22067. [PMID: 38086849 PMCID: PMC10716184 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-49323-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2023] [Accepted: 12/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Novel technologies such as complex magnetic fields-CMFs represent an eco-sustainable proposal to counteract the infection associated to resistant microorganisms. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of two CMF programs (STRESS, ANTIBACTERIAL) against clinical antifungal resistant C. albicans also evaluating their uneffectiveness on gingival fibroblasts (hGFs). The STRESS program was more efficacious on C. albicans biofilm with up to 64.37% ± 10.80 of biomass and up to 99.19% ± 0.06 CFU/ml reductions in respect to the control also inducing an alteration of lipidic structure of the membrane. The MTT assay showed no CMFs negative effects on the viability of hGFs with a major ROS production with the ANTIBACTERIAL program at 3 and 24 h. For the wound healing assay, STRESS program showed the best effect in terms of the rate migration at 24 h, showing statistical significance of p < 0.0001. The toluidine-blue staining observations showed the typical morphology of cells and the presence of elongated and spindle-shaped with cytoplasmic extensions and lamellipodia was observed by SEM. The ANTIBACTERIAL program statistically increased the production of collagen with respect to control and STRESS program (p < 0.0001). CMFs showed a relevant anti-virulence action against C. albicans, no cytotoxicity effects and a high hGFs migration rate. The results of this study suggest that CMFs could represent a novel eco-sustainable strategy to counteract the resistant yeast biofilm infections.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Di Lodovico
- Department of Pharmacy, University "G. d'Annunzio" Chieti-Pescara, Via dei Vestini, 31, 66100, Chieti, Italy
| | - Morena Petrini
- Department of Medical Oral and Biotechnological Sciences, University "G. d'Annunzio" Chieti-Pescara, Via dei Vestini, 31, 66100, Chieti, Italy
| | - Emira D'Amico
- Department of Medical Oral and Biotechnological Sciences, University "G. d'Annunzio" Chieti-Pescara, Via dei Vestini, 31, 66100, Chieti, Italy
| | - Paola Di Fermo
- Department of Medical Oral and Biotechnological Sciences, University "G. d'Annunzio" Chieti-Pescara, Via dei Vestini, 31, 66100, Chieti, Italy
| | - Firas Diban
- Department of Pharmacy, University "G. d'Annunzio" Chieti-Pescara, Via dei Vestini, 31, 66100, Chieti, Italy
| | - Sara D'Arcangelo
- Department of Pharmacy, University "G. d'Annunzio" Chieti-Pescara, Via dei Vestini, 31, 66100, Chieti, Italy
| | - Adriano Piattelli
- School of Dentistry, Saint Camillus International, University of Health and Medical Sciences, Via di Sant'Alessandro 8, 00131, Rome, Italy
- Facultad de Medicina, UCAM Universidad Catolica San Antonio de Murcia, 30107, Murcia, Spain
| | - Luigina Cellini
- Department of Pharmacy, University "G. d'Annunzio" Chieti-Pescara, Via dei Vestini, 31, 66100, Chieti, Italy
| | - Giovanna Iezzi
- Department of Medical Oral and Biotechnological Sciences, University "G. d'Annunzio" Chieti-Pescara, Via dei Vestini, 31, 66100, Chieti, Italy
| | - Mara Di Giulio
- Department of Pharmacy, University "G. d'Annunzio" Chieti-Pescara, Via dei Vestini, 31, 66100, Chieti, Italy
| | - Simonetta D'Ercole
- Department of Medical Oral and Biotechnological Sciences, University "G. d'Annunzio" Chieti-Pescara, Via dei Vestini, 31, 66100, Chieti, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Montoya C, Kurylec J, Ossa A, Orrego S. Cyclic strain of poly (methyl methacrylate) surfaces triggered the pathogenicity of Candida albicans. Acta Biomater 2023; 170:415-426. [PMID: 37625677 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2023.08.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Revised: 07/21/2023] [Accepted: 08/17/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023]
Abstract
Candida albicans is an opportunistic yeast and the primary etiological factor in oral candidiasis and denture stomatitis. The pathogenesis of C. albicans could be triggered by several variables, including environmental, nutritional, and biomaterial surface cues. Specifically, biomaterial interactions are driven by different surface properties, including wettability, stiffness, and roughness. Dental biomaterials experience repetitive (cyclic) stresses from chewing and biomechanical movements. Pathogenic biofilms are formed over these biomaterial surfaces under cyclic strain. This study investigated the effect of the cyclic strain (deformation) of biomaterial surfaces on the virulence of Candida albicans. Candida biofilms were grown over Poly (methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) surfaces subjected to static (no strain) and cyclic strain with different levels (ε˜x=0.1 and 0.2%). To evaluate the biomaterial-biofilm interactions, the biofilm characteristics, yeast-to-hyphae transition, and the expression of virulent genes were measured. Results showed the biofilm biomass and metabolic activity to be significantly higher when Candida adhered to surfaces subjected to cyclic strain compared to static surfaces. Examination of the yeast-to-hyphae transition showed pseudo-hyphae cells (pathogenic) in cyclically strained biomaterial surfaces, whereas static surfaces showed spherical yeast cells (commensal). RNA sequencing was used to determine and compare the transcriptome profiles of cyclically strained and static surfaces. Genes and transcription factors associated with cell adhesion (CSH1, PGA10, and RBT5), biofilm formation (EFG1), and secretion of extracellular matrix (ECM) (CRH1, ADH5, GCA1, and GCA2) were significantly upregulated in the cyclically strained biomaterial surfaces compared to static ones. Genes and transcription factors associated with virulence (UME6 and HGC1) and the secretion of extracellular enzymes (LIP, PLB, and SAP families) were also significantly upregulated in the cyclically strained biomaterial surfaces compared to static. For the first time, this study reveals a biomaterial surface factor triggering the pathogenesis of Candida albicans, which is essential for understanding, controlling, and preventing oral infections. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Fungal infections produced by Candida albicans are a significant contributor to various health conditions. Candida becomes pathogenic when certain environmental conditions change, including temperature, pH, nutrients, and CO2 levels. In addition, surface properties, including wettability, stiffness, and roughness, drive the interactions between Candida and biomaterials. Clinically, Candida adheres to biomaterials that are under repetitive deformation due to body movements. In this work, we revealed that when Candida adhered to biomaterial surfaces subjected to repetitive deformation, the microorganism becomes pathogenic by increasing the formation of biofilms and the expression of virulent factors related to hyphae formation and secretion of enzymes. Findings from this work could aid the development of new strategies for treating fungal infections in medical devices or implanted biomaterials.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Montoya
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, Kornberg School of Dentistry, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Julia Kurylec
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, Kornberg School of Dentistry, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Alex Ossa
- Production Engineering Department, School of Engineering, Universidad EAFIT, Medellín, Colombia
| | - Santiago Orrego
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, Kornberg School of Dentistry, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States; Bioengineering Department, College of Engineering, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Biomimetic Nanopillar Silicon Surfaces Rupture Fungal Spores. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24021298. [PMID: 36674814 PMCID: PMC9864238 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24021298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2022] [Revised: 12/17/2022] [Accepted: 12/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The mechano-bactericidal action of nanostructured surfaces is well-documented; however, synthetic nanostructured surfaces have not yet been explored for their antifungal properties toward filamentous fungal species. In this study, we developed a biomimetic nanostructured surface inspired by dragonfly wings. A high-aspect-ratio nanopillar topography was created on silicon (nano-Si) surfaces using inductively coupled plasma reactive ion etching (ICP RIE). To mimic the superhydrophobic nature of insect wings, the nano-Si was further functionalised with trichloro(1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorooctyl)silane (PFTS). The viability of Aspergillus brasiliensis spores, in contact with either hydrophobic or hydrophilic nano-Si surfaces, was determined using a combination of standard microbiological assays, confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), and focused ion beam scanning electron microscopy (FIB-SEM). Results indicated the breakdown of the fungal spore membrane upon contact with the hydrophilic nano-Si surfaces. By contrast, hydrophobised nano-Si surfaces prevented the initial attachment of the fungal conidia. Hydrophilic nano-Si surfaces exhibited both antifungal and fungicidal properties toward attached A. brasisiensis spores via a 4-fold reduction of attached spores and approximately 9-fold reduction of viable conidia from initial solution after 24 h compared to their planar Si counterparts. Thus, we reveal, for the first time, the physical rupturing of attaching fungal spores by biomimetic hydrophilic nanostructured surfaces.
Collapse
|
6
|
Wu R, Cui G, Cao Y, Zhao W, Lin H. Streptococcus Mutans Membrane Vesicles Enhance Candida albicans Pathogenicity and Carbohydrate Metabolism. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:940602. [PMID: 35959374 PMCID: PMC9361861 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.940602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Accepted: 06/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus mutans and Candida albicans, as the most common bacterium and fungus in the oral cavity respectively, are considered microbiological risk markers of early childhood caries.
S. mutans
membrane vesicles (MVs) contain virulence proteins, which play roles in biofilm formation and disease progression. Our previous research found that S. mutans MVs harboring glucosyltransferases augment C. albicans biofilm formation by increasing exopolysaccharide production, but the specific impact of S. mutans MVs on C. albicans virulence and pathogenicity is still unknown. In the present study, we developed C. albicans biofilms on the surface of cover glass, hydroxyapatite discs and bovine dentin specimens. The results showed that C. albicans can better adhere to the tooth surface with the effect of S. mutans MVs. Meanwhile, we employed C. albicans biofilm-bovine dentin model to evaluate the influence of S. mutans MVs on C. albicans biofilm cariogenicity. In the S. mutans MV-treated group, the bovine dentin surface hardness loss was significantly increased and the surface morphology showed more dentin tubule exposure and broken dentin tubules. Subsequently, integrative proteomic and metabolomic approaches were used to identify the differentially expressed proteins and metabolites of C. albicans when cocultured with S. mutans MVs. The combination of proteomics and metabolomics analysis indicated that significantly regulated proteins and metabolites were involved in amino acid and carbohydrate metabolism. In summary, the results of the present study proved that S. mutans MVs increase bovine dentin demineralization provoked by C. albicans biofilms and enhance the protein and metabolite expression of C. albicans related to carbohydrate metabolism.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ruixue Wu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry, Hospital of Stomatology, Guanghua School of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Guxin Cui
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
- Department of Preventive Dentistry, Hospital of Stomatology, Guanghua School of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yina Cao
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
- Department of Preventive Dentistry, Hospital of Stomatology, Guanghua School of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wei Zhao
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry, Hospital of Stomatology, Guanghua School of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Wei Zhao, ; Huancai Lin,
| | - Huancai Lin
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
- Department of Preventive Dentistry, Hospital of Stomatology, Guanghua School of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Wei Zhao, ; Huancai Lin,
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Tokajuk J, Deptuła P, Chmielewska SJ, Skłodowski K, Mierzejewska ŻA, Grądzka-Dahlke M, Tołstoj A, Daniluk T, Paprocka P, Savage PB, Bucki R. Ceragenin CSA-44 as a Means to Control the Formation of the Biofilm on the Surface of Tooth and Composite Fillings. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11050491. [PMID: 35631012 PMCID: PMC9143991 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11050491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2022] [Revised: 04/14/2022] [Accepted: 04/16/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Recurrent oral infections, as manifested by endodontic and periodontal disease, are often caused by Enterococcus faecalis (E. faecalis) and Candida albicans (C. albicans). Here, we assessed the anti-biofilm activity of ceragenin CSA-44 against these microbes growing as a biofilm in the presence of saliva on the surface of human teeth and dental composite (composite filling) subjected to mechanical stresses. Methods: Biofilm mass analysis was performed using crystal violet (CV) staining. The morphology, viscoelastic properties of the biofilm after CSA-44 treatment, and changes in the surface of the composite in response to biofilm presence were determined by AFM microscopy. Results: CSA-44 prevented biofilm formation and reduced the mass of biofilm formed by tested microorganisms on teeth and dental composite. Conclusion: The ability of CSA-44 to prevent the formation and to reduce the presence of established biofilm on tooth and composite filling suggests that it can serve as an agent in the development of new methods of combating oral pathogens and reduce the severity of oral infections.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Tokajuk
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Nanobiomedical Engineering, Medical University of Białystok, Białystok, 15-222 Bialystok, Poland; (J.T.); (P.D.); (S.J.C.); (K.S.); (T.D.)
- Dentistry and Medicine Tokajuk, Żelazna 9/7, 15-297 Bialystok, Poland
| | - Piotr Deptuła
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Nanobiomedical Engineering, Medical University of Białystok, Białystok, 15-222 Bialystok, Poland; (J.T.); (P.D.); (S.J.C.); (K.S.); (T.D.)
| | - Sylwia J Chmielewska
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Nanobiomedical Engineering, Medical University of Białystok, Białystok, 15-222 Bialystok, Poland; (J.T.); (P.D.); (S.J.C.); (K.S.); (T.D.)
| | - Karol Skłodowski
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Nanobiomedical Engineering, Medical University of Białystok, Białystok, 15-222 Bialystok, Poland; (J.T.); (P.D.); (S.J.C.); (K.S.); (T.D.)
| | - Żaneta A Mierzejewska
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Białystok University of Technology, Wiejska 45C Street, 15-351 Białystok, Poland;
| | - Małgorzata Grądzka-Dahlke
- Institute of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Białystok University of Technology, Wiejska 45C Street, 15-351 Białystok, Poland; (M.G.-D.); (A.T.)
| | - Adam Tołstoj
- Institute of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Białystok University of Technology, Wiejska 45C Street, 15-351 Białystok, Poland; (M.G.-D.); (A.T.)
| | - Tamara Daniluk
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Nanobiomedical Engineering, Medical University of Białystok, Białystok, 15-222 Bialystok, Poland; (J.T.); (P.D.); (S.J.C.); (K.S.); (T.D.)
| | - Paulina Paprocka
- Institute of Medical Science, Collegium Medicum, Jan Kochanowski University of Kielce, IX Wieków Kielc 19A, 25-317 Kielce, Poland;
| | - Paul B Savage
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA;
| | - Robert Bucki
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Nanobiomedical Engineering, Medical University of Białystok, Białystok, 15-222 Bialystok, Poland; (J.T.); (P.D.); (S.J.C.); (K.S.); (T.D.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +48-85-748-54-83
| |
Collapse
|