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Miyah Y, El Messaoudi N, Benjelloun M, Acikbas Y, Şenol ZM, Ciğeroğlu Z, Lopez-Maldonado EA. Advanced applications of hydroxyapatite nanocomposite materials for heavy metals and organic pollutants removal by adsorption and photocatalytic degradation: A review. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 358:142236. [PMID: 38705409 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.142236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2024] [Revised: 04/27/2024] [Accepted: 05/02/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024]
Abstract
This comprehensive review delves into the forefront of scientific exploration, focusing on hydroxyapatite-based nanocomposites (HANCs) and their transformative role in the adsorption of heavy metals (HMs) and organic pollutants (OPs). Nanoscale properties, including high surface area and porous structure, contribute to the enhanced adsorption capabilities of HANCs. The nanocomposites' reactive sites facilitate efficient contaminant interactions, resulting in improved kinetics and capacities. HANCs exhibit selective adsorption properties, showcasing the ability to discriminate between different contaminants. The eco-friendly synthesis methods and potential for recyclability position the HANCs as environmentally friendly solutions for adsorption processes. The review acknowledges the dynamic nature of the field, which is characterized by continuous innovation and a robust focus on ongoing research endeavors. The paper highlights the HANCs' selective adsorption capabilities of various HMs and OPs through various interactions, including hydrogen and electrostatic bonding. These materials are also used for aquatic pollutants' photocatalytic degradation, where reactive hydroxyl radicals are generated to oxidize organic pollutants quickly. Future perspectives explore novel compositions, fabrication methods, and applications, driving the evolution of HANCs for improved adsorption performance. This review provides a comprehensive synthesis of the state-of-the-art HANCs, offering insights into their diverse applications, sustainability aspects, and pivotal role in advancing adsorption technologies for HMs and OPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youssef Miyah
- Laboratory of Materials, Processes, Catalysis, and Environment, Higher School of Technology, University Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah, Fez-Morocco, Morocco; Ministry of Health and Social Protection, Higher Institute of Nursing Professions and Health Techniques, Fez-Morocco, Morocco.
| | - Noureddine El Messaoudi
- Laboratory of Applied Chemistry and Environment, Faculty of Sciences, Ibn Zohr University, 80000, Agadir, Morocco.
| | - Mohammed Benjelloun
- Laboratory of Materials, Processes, Catalysis, and Environment, Higher School of Technology, University Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah, Fez-Morocco, Morocco
| | - Yaser Acikbas
- Department of Materials Science and Nanotechnology Engineering, Usak University, 64200, Usak, Turkey
| | - Zeynep Mine Şenol
- Sivas Cumhuriyet University, Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Nutrition and Diet, 58140, Sivas, Turkey
| | - Zeynep Ciğeroğlu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Usak University, 64300, Usak, Turkey
| | - Eduardo Alberto Lopez-Maldonado
- Faculty of Chemical Sciences and Engineering, Autonomous University of Baja, California, CP: 22390, Tijuana, Baja California, Mexico
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Gadore V, Mishra SR, Ahmaruzzaman M. Bandgap engineering approach for synthesising photoactive novel Ag/HAp/SnS 2 for removing toxic anti-fungal pharmaceutical from aqueous environment. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 461:132458. [PMID: 37717444 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2023] [Revised: 08/13/2023] [Accepted: 08/30/2023] [Indexed: 09/19/2023]
Abstract
The present work shed light on synthesising a novel ternary Z-scheme Ag/HAp/SnS2 (AHS) nano photocatalyst to degrade metronidazole (MTZ) in wastewater through H2O2-assisted AOP under natural sunlight. HAp extracted from the fish scales of rohu fish through alkaline treatment was decorated with Ag nanoparticles using ascorbic acid as a bio-reductant. Tin disulphide (SnS2) was anchored over Ag/HAp to prevent agglomeration and enhance photocatalytic activity by delaying the electron-hole recombination rate. After 45 min of irradiation, a degradation efficiency of 98.85 ± 1.86% for 15 ppm MTZ could be achieved. The performance of the prepared photocatalyst in real wastewater was investigated by introducing several metal cations and anions in the photodegradation process. The degradation products were identified by HRLCMS analysis, and the breakdown mechanism of MTZ was proposed. The present study enlightens the importance of SnS2-based photocatalysts for organic pollutant degradation under natural sunlight through an advanced oxidation process. The characterization results showed that the enhanced photodegradation efficiency of AHS is attributed to the formation of an all-solid-state Z-scheme heterojunction with Ag nanoparticles acting as charge transfer medium and as electron accumulators helping in delaying charge recombination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vishal Gadore
- Department of Chemistry, National Institute of Technology, Silchar 788010, Assam, India
| | - Soumya Ranjan Mishra
- Department of Chemistry, National Institute of Technology, Silchar 788010, Assam, India
| | - Md Ahmaruzzaman
- Department of Chemistry, National Institute of Technology, Silchar 788010, Assam, India.
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Algethami JS, Alhamami MAM, Alqadami AA, Melhi S, Seliem AF. Magnetic hydrochar grafted-chitosan for enhanced efficient adsorption of malachite green dye from aqueous solutions: Modeling, adsorption behavior, and mechanism analysis. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 254:127767. [PMID: 38287576 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.127767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2023] [Revised: 07/12/2023] [Accepted: 10/27/2023] [Indexed: 01/31/2024]
Abstract
Water pollution by organic dyes is one of the most serious environmental problems worldwide. Malachite green (MG) is considered as one the serious organic dyes which is discharged in wastewater by leather and textile manufacturing plants. MG dye can cause severe hazards to the environment and human health. Therefore, the removal of MG dye from wastewater is very important and essential. This study aims to synthesize a new magnetic hydrochar grafted to chitosan (MWSHC@CS) for the removal of MG dye from the aqueous solutions. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) surface area, and Zeta potential analysis were used to characterize the synthesized MWSHC@CS. Batch experiments were conducted to optimize MG dye adsorption conditions, including adsorbent mass, pH, temperature, initial concentration, and contact time. The results revealed that MWSHC@CS had an excellent removal efficiency (96.47 %) for MG dye at the optimum condition (at m: 20 mg, pH: 7.5, t: 420 min, and T: 298 K). Adsorption isotherms outcomes revealed the MG adsorption data were best fit by the Langmuir model with a maximum adsorption capacity (420.02 mg/g). Adsorption kinetics outcomes exhibited that the adsorption process of MG dye fitted well to the Elovich model. The thermodynamic results revealed that the adsorption process was physical, exothermic, and spontaneous. The adsorption mechanisms of MG onto MWSHC@CS were hydrogen bonding, electrostatic interaction, and π-π interactions. Furthermore, MWSHC@CS showed excellent reusability for the removal of MG over five cycles of adsorption-desorption (83.76 %). In conclusion, the study provides a new, low-cost, and effective magnetic nanocomposite based on chitosan as a promising adsorbent for the high-performance removal of MG dye from aqueous solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jari S Algethami
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science and Arts, Najran University, P.O. Box, 1988, Najran 11001, Saudi Arabia; Advanced Materials and Nano-Research Centre, Najran University, Najran 11001, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Mohsen A M Alhamami
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science and Arts, Najran University, P.O. Box, 1988, Najran 11001, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Ayoub Abdullah Alqadami
- Department of Industrial Chemistry, Faculty of Applied Science, University of Hajjah, Yemen.
| | - Saad Melhi
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, University of Bisha, Bisha 61922, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Amal F Seliem
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science and Arts, Najran University, P.O. Box, 1988, Najran 11001, Saudi Arabia.
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Bernardino EG, Ferreira MEC, Bergamasco R, Yamaguchi NU. Photocatalyst of manganese ferrite and reduced graphene oxide supported on activated carbon from cow bone for wastewater treatment. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024; 31:4779-4796. [PMID: 38105329 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-31501-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2023] [Accepted: 12/05/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
The present research aimed to evaluate the photocatalytic activity of manganese ferrite (M) and reduced graphene oxide (G) supported on pulverized activated carbon from cow bone waste (PAC-MG). PAC-MG was characterized by different instrumental techniques. The efficiency of PAC-MG was evaluated using solar irradiation under different conditions of photocatalyst concentration, H2O2 concentration, and pH ranges for the discoloration of methylene blue dye (MB). The synergy between the nanomaterials potentiated the photocatalytic activity, reaching 85.5% of MB discoloration when using 0.25 g L-1 of catalyst at neutral pH with no oxidant needed. Furthermore, PAC-MG demonstrated excellent stability in 6 consecutive cycles. Finally, it is expected that the present study can add value to industrial waste and contribute to the development of novel water and wastewater treatment methods, ensuring water quality for human consumption and the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduarda Gameleira Bernardino
- Post-Graduation Program in Clean Technologies, Cesumar Institute of Science, Technology, and Innovation, Cesumar University, Maringá, Brazil
| | | | - Rosângela Bergamasco
- Department of Chemical Engineering, State University of Maringá, Maringá, Brazil
| | - Natália Ueda Yamaguchi
- Post-Graduation Program in Clean Technologies, Cesumar Institute of Science, Technology, and Innovation, Cesumar University, Maringá, Brazil.
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Amna T, Hassan MS. Nanofibers and Nanotextured Materials: Design Insights, Bactericidal Mechanisms and Environmental Advances. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 13:2891. [PMID: 37947735 PMCID: PMC10647218 DOI: 10.3390/nano13212891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023]
Abstract
Antibiotic resistance is rising and poses a serious threat to human health on a worldwide scale. It can make it more difficult to cure common infections, raise medical expenditures, and increase mortality. In order to combat the development of biofilms and treat fatal bacterial infections, multifunctional polymeric nanofibers or nanotextured materials with specific structural features and special physiochemical capabilities have become a crucial tool. Due to the increased antibiotic resistance of many diseases, nanofibers with antibacterial activity are essential. Electrospinning is a flexible process able to produce fine fibers with specified properties by modifying variables such as the concentration of the solution, the feed flow, and the electric voltage. Substantial advancements have been made regarding the formation of nanofibers or nanotextured materials for a variety of applications, along with the development of electrospinning techniques in recent years. Using well-defined antimicrobial nanoparticles, encapsulating traditional therapeutic agents, plant-based bioactive agents, and pure compounds in polymer nanofibers has resulted in outstanding antimicrobial activity and has aided in curing deadly microbial infections. A plethora of studies have revealed that electrospinning is an effective technique for the production of antimicrobial fibers for the environmental, biomedical, pharmaceutical, and food sectors. Nevertheless, numerous studies have also demonstrated that the surface characteristics of substrates, such as holes, fibers, and ridges at the nanoscale, have an impact on cell proliferation, adhesion, and orientation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Touseef Amna
- Department of Biology, College of Science, Al-Baha University, Albaha 65799, Saudi Arabia
| | - M. Shamshi Hassan
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Al-Baha University, Albaha 65799, Saudi Arabia
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Khalid S, Chaudhary MN, Nazir R, Ahmad SR, Hussain N, Ayub Y, Ibrar M. Biochar supported metallo-inorganic nanocomposite: A green approach for decontamination of heavy metals from water. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0289069. [PMID: 37708189 PMCID: PMC10501632 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0289069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 09/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Heavy metal contamination of water has become a global environmental burden, which has stirred up agitation worldwide. Fabrication of adsorbents utilizing either low cost, environment friendly materials or waste products can be helpful in remediating environmental pollution. The current study evolved around the synthesis of nanocomposites derived from such raw precursors like spent tea waste biochar, hydroxyapatite, and clays. In this context, two nanocomposites, namely manganese ferrite doped hydroxyapatite/kaolinite/biochar (TK-NC) and manganese ferrite doped hydroxyapatite/vermiculite/biochar (TV-NC), were synthesized followed by their employment for decontamination of heavy metals from aqueous media. TK-NC and TV-NC exhibited the crystallite sizes in the range of 2.55-5.94 nm as obtained by Debye Scherrer Equation and Williamsons-Hall equation The fabricated nanocomposites were characterized using FT-IR, SEM-EDX, and powder XRD. Batch adsorption studies were performed, and influence of different adsorption parameters (contact time, reaction temperature, solution pH, adsorbent dose, and initial adsorbate concentration) on metal adsorption was examined. Thermodynamic studies revealed that the adsorption of Cr(VI), Ni(II) and Cu(II) on TK-NC and TV-NC was endothermic (+ΔH°) and indicates disorderness (+ΔS°) at the solid-liquid interface owing to the strong affinity of metal ions with adsorbent. The heavy metal uptake selectivity followed the following decreasing order; Cr(VI) > Cu(II) > Ni(II) by both nanocomposites, with adsorption capacities falling in the range of 204.68-343.05 mg g-1. Several adsorption kinetic and isotherm models were applied to experimentally calculated data, which suggest favorable adsorption of Cr(VI), Ni(II) and Cu(II) by TK-NC and TV-NC from the system while obeying general-order kinetics and R-P adsorption model, conferring the transition in adsorption kinetics order and involvement of multiple adsorption process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sana Khalid
- College of Earth & Environmental Sciences, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Nawaz Chaudhary
- Department of Environmental Sciences & Policy, Lahore School of Economics (LSE), Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Rabia Nazir
- Pakistan Council of Scientific and Industrial Research Laboratories Complex, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Sajid Rashid Ahmad
- College of Earth & Environmental Sciences, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Naqi Hussain
- Department of Environmental Sciences & Policy, Lahore School of Economics (LSE), Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Yaseen Ayub
- Department of Chemistry, Forman Christian College, Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Ibrar
- Department of Chemistry, Lahore Garrison University, Lahore, Pakistan
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Algethami JS, Hassan MS, Amna T, Alqarni LS, Alhamami MAM, Seliem AF. Bismuth Vanadate Decked Polyaniline Polymeric Nanocomposites: The Robust Photocatalytic Destruction of Microbial and Chemical Toxicants. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 16:ma16093314. [PMID: 37176198 PMCID: PMC10179250 DOI: 10.3390/ma16093314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2023] [Revised: 04/16/2023] [Accepted: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Functional materials have long been studied for a variety of environmental applications, resource rescue, and many other conceivable applications. The present study reports on the synthesis of bismuth vanadate (BiVO4) integrated polyaniline (PANI) using the hydrothermal method. The topology of BiVO4 decked PANI catalysts was investigated by SEM and TEM. XRD, EDX, FT-IR, and antibacterial testing were used to examine the physicochemical and antibacterial properties of the samples, respectively. Microscopic images revealed that BiVO4@PANI are comprised of BiVO4 hollow cages made up of nanobeads that are uniformly dispersed across PANI tubes. The PL results confirm that the composite has the lowest electron-hole recombination compared to others samples. BiVO4@PANI composite photocatalysts demonstrated the maximum degradation efficiency compared to pure BiVO4 and PANI for rhodamine B dye. The probable antimicrobial and photocatalytic mechanisms of the BiVO4@PANI photocatalyst were proposed. The enhanced antibacterial and photocatalytic activity could be attributed to the high surface area and combined impact of PANI and BiVO4, which promoted the migration efficiency of photo-generated electron holes. These findings open up ways for the potential use of BiVO4@PANI in industries, environmental remediation, pharmaceutical and medical sectors. Nevertheless, biocompatibility for human tissues should be thoroughly examined to lead to future improvements in photocatalytic performance and increase antibacterial efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jari S Algethami
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science and Arts, Najran University, Najran 11001, Saudi Arabia
- Promising Centre for Sensors and Electronic Devices (PCSED), Advanced Materials and Nano-Research Centre, Najran University, Najran 11001, Saudi Arabia
| | - M Shamshi Hassan
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Albaha University, Albaha 65799, Saudi Arabia
| | - Touseef Amna
- Department of Biology, College of Science, Albaha University, Albaha 65799, Saudi Arabia
| | - Laila S Alqarni
- Chemistry Department, College of Science, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU), Riyadh 11564, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohsen A M Alhamami
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science and Arts, Najran University, Najran 11001, Saudi Arabia
| | - Amal F Seliem
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science and Arts, Najran University, Najran 11001, Saudi Arabia
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Algethami JS, Hassan MS, Amna T, Sheikh FA, Alhamami MAM, Seliem AF, Faisal M, Kim HY. Nanotextured CeO 2-SnO 2 Composite: Efficient Photocatalytic, Antibacterial, and Energy Storage Fibers. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 13:nano13061001. [PMID: 36985895 PMCID: PMC10052679 DOI: 10.3390/nano13061001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2023] [Revised: 03/01/2023] [Accepted: 03/07/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial infections remain a serious and pervasive threat to human health. Bacterial antibiotic resistance, in particular, lowers treatment efficacy and increases mortality. The development of nanomaterials has made it possible to address issues in the biomedical, energy storage, and environmental fields. This paper reports the successful synthesis of CeO2-SnO2 composite nanofibers via an electrospinning method using polyacrylonitrile polymer. Scanning and transmission electron microscopy assessments showed that the average diameter of CeO2-SnO2 nanofibers was 170 nm. The result of photocatalytic degradation for methylene blue dye displayed enhanced efficiency of the CeO2-SnO2 composite. The addition of SnO2 to CeO2 resulted in the enhancement of the light absorption property and enriched charge transmission of photoinduced electron-hole duos, which conspicuously contributed to momentous photoactivity augmentation. Composite nanofibers exhibited higher specific capacitance which may be accredited to the synergism between CeO2 and SnO2 particles in nanofibers. Furthermore, antibacterial activity was screened against Escherichia coli and CeO2-SnO2 composite nanofibers depicted excellent activity. The findings of this work point to new possibilities as an electrode material in energy storage systems and as a visible-light-active photocatalyst for the purification of chemical and biological contaminants, which would substantially benefit environmental remediation processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jari S. Algethami
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science and Arts, Najran University, Najran 11001, Saudi Arabia
- Promising Centre for Sensors and Electronic Devices (PCSED), Advanced Materials and Nano-Research Centre, Najran University, Najran 11001, Saudi Arabia
| | - M. Shamshi Hassan
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Albaha University, Albaha 65799, Saudi Arabia
| | - Touseef Amna
- Department of Biology, College of Science, Albaha University, Albaha 65799, Saudi Arabia
| | - Faheem A. Sheikh
- Nanostructured and Biomimetic Lab, Department of Nanotechnology, University of Kashmir Hazratbal, Srinagar 190006, India
| | - Mohsen A. M. Alhamami
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science and Arts, Najran University, Najran 11001, Saudi Arabia
| | - Amal F. Seliem
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science and Arts, Najran University, Najran 11001, Saudi Arabia
| | - M. Faisal
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science and Arts, Najran University, Najran 11001, Saudi Arabia
- Promising Centre for Sensors and Electronic Devices (PCSED), Advanced Materials and Nano-Research Centre, Najran University, Najran 11001, Saudi Arabia
| | - H. Y. Kim
- Organic Materials and Fibers Engineering Department, Chonbuk National University, Jeonju 560011, Republic of Korea
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Functionalized Microbial Consortia with Silver-Doped Hydroxyapatite (Ag@HAp) Nanostructures for Removal of RO84 from Industrial Effluent. CRYSTALS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/cryst12070970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Considering that freshwater is a necessity for human life, sewage treatment has been a serious concern for an increasing number of scientists and academics in recent years. To clean industrial effluents, innovative catalysts with good adsorption, chemical stability, and physicochemical properties have been constructed. Here, a prospective microbial consortium was extracted from the wastewater and used as a low-cost catalyst that was functionalized with silver and silver-doped hydroxyapatite (Ag@HAp) nanostructures made using a sonochemical approach. The structural, optical, and crystal phases of Ag and Ag-doped hydroxyapatite (Ag@HAp) nanostructures were studied using ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis), Fourier transfer infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) techniques. The degradation action of functionalized microbial consortia was examined against reactive orange 84 (RO84) organic discharge. Excellent efficiency for the removal of industrial effluents was found for the Ag NPs and Ag-doped hydroxyapatite (Ag@HAp) loaded with microbial consortia. A maximum of 95% of the decolorization properties of the RO84 dye were obtained in the case of microbial consortia with Ag and Ag@HAp, which was better than the consortia alone (80.32% for 5 ppm and 69.54% for 20 ppm). The consortia/Ag showed 93.34% for 5 ppm and 85.43% for 20 ppm, while was higher for consortia/Ag@HAp (95.34 and 88.43%). The use of these surface-modified nanocatalysts for wastewater treatment and waste effluents discharged from laboratories, the chemical industry, and other sources could be expanded.
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