Trans Fatty Acids in Human Milk in Latvia: Association with Dietary Habits during the Lactation Period

Changes in the Fatty Acid Profile of Lactating Women Living in Poland-A Comparison with the Fatty Acid Profile of Selected Infant Formulas

The present study examined the fatty acid content of human milk from Polish women living in the Warmia and Mazury region with regard to different lactation periods and compared it with the fatty acid content of selected infant formulas. The analysis included samples of breast milk-colostrum (n = 21), transitional milk (n = 26), and mature milk (n = 22). Fat was extracted using the Rose-Gottlieb method, and the fatty acid profile was determined by gas chromatography with a flame ionization detector (FID). The proportion of SFAs (saturated fatty acids) > MUFAs (monounsaturated fatty acids) > PUFAs (polyunsaturated fatty acids) was determined in each fraction of breast milk and infant formula. Palmitic, oleic, and linoleic acids predominated in breast milk and infant formulas. Colostrum contained lower contents of selected SFAs (caprylic, capric, lauric) and higher contents of selected MUFAs (ercucic) and PUFAs (arachidonic and docosahexaenoic) (p < 0.05) relative to transitional and mature milk. Infant formulas were distinguished from human milk in terms of their SFA (caproic, caprylic, lauric, arachidic), MUFA (oleic), and PUFA (linoleic, α-linoleic) content. It should be noted that infant formulas contained significantly lower trans fatty acid (TFA) content-more than thirty-six and more than nineteen times lower than in human milk. Furthermore, human milk contained branched-chain fatty acids (BCFAs) at 0.23-0.28%, while infant formulas contained only trace amounts of these acids. The average ratio of n-6 to n-3 fatty acids for human milk was 6.59:1 and was close to the worldwide ratio of 6.53 ± 1.72:1. Both principal component analysis (PCA) and cluster analysis (CA) indicated significant differences in the fatty acid profile relative to lactation and a different profile of infant formulas relative to breast milk.

Investigating the Dietary Impact on Trans-Vaccenic Acid (Trans-C18:1 n-7) and Other Beneficial Fatty Acids in Breast Milk and Infant Formulas

Maternal diet plays a significant role in the fatty acid composition of breast milk. Dietary products such as milk and meat are the primary sources of natural TFAs for humans. These peculiar fatty acids hold nutritional significance as they not only lack the detrimental effects of industrially produced trans fats on the endothelium characteristic, but they also exhibit anti-inflammatory properties. The relationship between the presence of eight fatty acids in breast milk (including natural TFAs trans-vaccenic and conjugated linoleic acid) and the maternal diet has been explored, and their abundance has been compared to that of infant formulas. Two cohorts of lactating women, originating from a Spanish region, participated in this study; they adhered to the Southern European Atlantic diet or the Atlantic diet. While the consumption of conventional meat or dairy products does not seem to increase the abundance of TFAs in breast milk, trans-vaccenic and oleic acid are among the most distinctive features of breast milk fat in mothers consuming naturally improved dairy products with an improved fatty acid profile. The most significant differences between natural breastfeeding and formula feeding lie in natural TFAs, since formulas are notably deficient in natural TFAs while being overfortified in alpha-linolenic acid in comparison to breast milk. We suggest an improvement in the formulation of these products through using cow's milk with an optimal fatty acid profile that better mimics the fatty acid composition found in human milk.

Determination of the Fatty Acid Profile and Lipid Quality Indices in Selected Infant Formulas

The quality of fat in infant milk is determined by the fatty acid profile and selected indices describing nutritional value. The aim of this study was to analyze the fatty acid profile and lipid quality indices of infant formulas and compare these data with breast milk. The study material included seven types of cow's milk-based follow-on infant formulas and samples of mature breast milk. The determination of fatty acids was performed using the gas chromatography (GC) technique. Lipid quality indices were calculated based on the relevant equations. Infant formulas contained more medium-chain fatty acids (MCFAs) and oleic acid. Moreover, they contained more than 30% more linoleic acid and more than twice as much α-linolenic acid and docosahexaenoic acid. In contrast, significant amounts of trans fatty acids (TFAs) were noted in breast milk, while infant formulas contained trace amounts. Infant formulas were characterized by a lower AI (Index of Atherogenicity) (0.49-0.98) and TI (Index of Thrombogenicity) (0.48-0.60) and a higher H/H (hypocholesterolemic/hypercholesterolemic) ratio (1.93-2.30) compared with breast milk (1.47, 1.60, and 1.21, respectively). The composition of infant formulas depended on the type of fat added at the production stage and differed significantly from breast milk, particularly in terms of polyunsaturated fatty acids and lipid quality indices.

Trans isomeric fatty acids in human milk and their role in infant health and development

It is well known that long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs) play an important role in neurodevelopment in the perinatal life. The most important source of these fatty acids is the diet, however, they can also be formed in the human body from their shorter chain precursors, the essential fatty acids. Since the WHO recommends exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months after birth, the exclusive source of these fatty acids for breastfed infants is human milk, which can be influenced by the mother's diet. Unsaturated fatty acids can have either cis or trans configuration double bond in their chain with distinct physiological effects. Cis isomeric unsaturated fatty acids have several beneficial effects, while trans isomers are mostly detrimental, because of their similar structure to saturated fatty acids. Trans fatty acids (TFAs) can be further subdivided into industrial (iTFA) and ruminant-derived trans fatty acids (rTFA). However, the physiological effects of these two TFA subgroups may differ. In adults, dietary intake of iTFA has been linked to atherosclerosis, insulin resistance, obesity, chronic inflammation, and increased development of certain cancers, among other diseases. However, iTFAs can have a negative impact on health not only in adulthood but in childhood too. Results from previous studies have shown that iTFAs have a significant negative effect on LCPUFA levels in the blood of newborns and infants. In addition, iTFAs can affect the growth and development of infants, and animal studies suggest that they might even have lasting negative effects later in life. Since the only source of TFAs in the human body is the diet, the TFA content of breast milk may determine the TFA supply of breastfed infants and thus affect the levels of LCPUFAs important for neurodevelopment and the health of infants. In this review, we aim to provide an overview of the TFA content in human milk available in the literature and their potential effects on infant health and development.

Effect of Different Dietary Patterns on Macronutrient Composition in Human Breast Milk: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

The aim of this meta-analysis was to systematically review the relationships between lactation diet and the composition of mature breast milk through screening multiple databases and gray literatures, with priority given to quantitative articles published in Chinese and English. We identified 27 cross-sectional studies that included 4355 lactating women. According to these data, dietary patterns were categorized into four patterns based on the fat and protein energy supplying ratio, including rational-fat and rational-protein dietary (RR), high-fat and high-protein dietary (HH), rational-fat and high-protein dietary (RH), and high-fat and rational-protein dietary (HR). The results showed the fat content in mature milk was increased with increments of fat intake, while both the protein and lactose contents in mature milk did not increase with their intakes for lactating mothers. Among these four dietary patterns, the energy ratio of macronutrients in human milk at the RR was the closest to the estimated energy ratio for infants aged 0-6 M. In conclusion, our study represents that the rational dietary pattern should be advocated, and the irrational dietary patterns, especially high-fat and high-protein dietary patterns, should be avoided during lactation stage.

Trans Fatty Acids Content in Whole-Day Diets Intended for Pregnant and Breastfeeding Women in Gynaecological and Obstetric Wards: Findings from the Study under the “Mum’s Diet” Pilot Program in Poland

Trans fatty acids (TFAs) have been proven to have an adverse effect on human health by interfering with n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 LC-PUFA) synthesis. LC-PUFA n-3 are necessary for the development and maturation of the nervous system and retina during the prenatal period and infancy. TFAs are not synthesized de novo in the human body. Their presence in body fluids arises from the diet. The aim of our study was to determine the content of TFAs in individual meals and in a whole-day hospital diet intended for pregnant and breastfeeding women. Samples were collected from six different hospitals in Poland which voluntarily applied to the “Mum’s Diet” Pilot Program. The content of fatty acids, including TFAs, was determined by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The TFAs content in the whole-day hospital diets ranged from 3.86 to 8.37% of all fatty acids (% wt/wt). Food products served for elevenses and afternoon snacks contributed the highest amounts of TFAs. These mainly included dairy products containing TFAs of natural origins. The estimated average intake of TFAs with the hospital diet was 0.72 g/person/day (range: 0.34–1.16 g/person/day) and did not exceed the maximum level of 1% of dietary energy recommended by the World Health Organization.

Fatty Acid Composition of Milk from Mothers with Normal Weight, Obesity, or Gestational Diabetes

Gestation and the neonatal period are crucial periods in infant development. Many components of breast milk, including fatty acids, play an important role in strengthening the immune system. The aim of our research was to evaluate the fatty acid profiles of milk from 69 mothers, including subjects having a normal weight, obesity, or gestational diabetes. For the analyses, we used gas chromatography (GC) with flame ionization detection (FID) and GC coupled with mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The main fatty acids found in breast milk were palmitic acid (C16:0; 26-28%), linoleic acid (C18:2; 23-28%), and α-linolenic acid linoleic acid (C18:3; 15-17%), followed by myristic acid (C14:0; 5-8%), lauric acid (C12:0; 4-6%) and stearic acid (C18:0; 4-5%). The average breakdown of fatty acids was 50% saturated, 44% polyunsaturated, and 6% monounsaturated. Breast milk samples were classified using principal component analysis and linear discriminant analysis. Results showed that milk from the two major groups of obese and normal body mass index (BMI) could be distinguished with an accuracy of 89.66%. Breast milk samples of Hungarian and Ukrainian mothers showed significant differences based on the fatty acid composition, which variations are attributable to the mothers' dietary habits.

Evaluation of the Effect of Elite Jojoba Lines on the Chemical Properties of their Seed Oil

Jojoba oil (JO) extracted from seeds has outstanding properties, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antibacterial activities, and can be stored forlong periodsof time. The unique properties of jojoba oil depend on its chemical composition; therefore, the effect of the jojoba genotype on the chemical properties and active components of the seed oil was evaluated in this study. Oil samples were collected from 15 elite Egyptian jojoba lines. The chemical composition, such as moisture, crude fiber, crude oil, ash, and crude protein of elite lines’ seeds was determined to investigate the variation among them based on the jojoba genotype. In addition, the iodine value was obtained to measure the degree of jojoba oil unsaturation, whereas the peroxide number was determined as an indicator of the damage level in jojoba oil. Fatty acid composition was studied to compare elite jojoba lines. Fatty acid profiles varied significantly depending on the jojoba genotype. Gadoleic acid exhibited the highest percentage value (67.85–75.50%) in the extracted jojoba oil, followed by erucic acid (12.60–14.81%) and oleic acid (7.86–10.99%). The iodine value, peroxide number, and fatty acid composition of the tested elite jojoba lines were compared withthose reported by the International Jojoba Export Council (IJEC). The results showed that the chemical properties of jojoba oils varied significantly, depending on the jojoba genotype.

Profiling of Primary Metabolites and Volatiles in Apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.) Seed Kernels and Fruits in the Context of Its Different Cultivars and Soil Type as Analyzed Using Chemometric Tools

The goal of this study was to assess nutrient primary metabolites and aroma determinants in Prunus armeniaca L. fruits and seed kernels grown in Egypt represented by its different cultivars and agricultural conditions i.e., two different soil types (muddy versus sandy). Two techniques were employed to assess non-volatile and volatile metabolites using gas chromatography mass-spectrometry (GC-MS) post silylation, and headspace solid-phase micro-extraction (HS-SPME) coupled GC-MS, respectively. A total of 36 peaks belonging to sugars, fatty acids/esters and organic acids were identified by GC–MS in various apricot fruits and seed kernels cultivars. Glucose and sucrose were enriched in apricot fruits compared to the seed kernels. A total of 70 volatiles were identified, with lactones, alcohols and esters representing the main classes of apricot volatiles accounting for its discrete aroma. (E)-Anethole, β-ionone, γ-decanolactone and methyl palmitate were the major peaks contributing to the discrimination between various fruit cultivars and providing novel insight on apricot metabolome.

Mineral and Vitamin Intakes of Latvian Women during Lactation Period

Studies from Europe and the United States indicate that women during the lactation period do not consume sufficient amounts of essential micronutrients. Previously reported data from Latvia indicates a low vegetable, fruit, fish, cereal, and milk and dairy products intake among lactating women. This raises concerns that nutrient (especially minerals and vitamins) intakes could also be insufficient. Therefore, this study aimed to assess mineral and vitamin intakes among lactating women in Latvia in comparison to nutritional guidelines at both a national and European level. 72-h food diaries were collected from 62 participants during the period November 2016 till December 2017 and from 68 participants during the period from January 2020 to December 2020. This also allowed us to evaluate whether nutrient intakes among lactating women in Latvia have changed in recent years. The Fineli Food Composition Database was used to calculate micronutrient intakes among the participants. MS Excel 2019 and IBM SPSS Statistics 23 were used for the statistical data analysis. The results revealed that dietary intakes of calcium, iron, iodine, and vitamins A, D, B1, and B9 among the participants of both study periods did not meet dietary recommendations. Low mineral and vitamin intakes could potentially affect the composition of human milk, and therefore micronutrient intakes, for breastfed infants. This indicates a need to develop dietary guidelines in order to improve diets among lactating women in Latvia.