The Intake of Phosphorus and Nitrites through Meat Products: A Health Risk Assessment of Children Aged 1 to 9 Years Old in Serbia

Development and Evaluation of the Reliability of a Semi-Quantitative Food Frequency Questionnaire to Assess the Intake in the Serbian Population

Assessing dietary habits with validated questionnaires is crucial for achieving reliable results in health research. The aim of this study was the development and validation of a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) in an 18-30-year-old Serbian population. A total of 93 participants completed the FFQ and three 24 h dietary recalls (24 hR). Pearson and intraclass correlations between FFQ and 24 hR intakes were assessed and were de-attenuated and energy-adjusted. Bland-Altman plots were generated, and quintiles of energy, water, fiber, and macronutrient intake were analyzed with contingency tables. Adjustments for sex differences were included. The validity of the FFQ varied, with significant correlations for energy, carbohydrates, cholesterol, and vitamin B12, vitamin C and vitamin D. Misclassification rates were generally low. Bland-Altman plots indicated good agreement between methods. It can be concluded that the validated FFQ is a promising tool for dietary assessment in the Serbian population. Results for several nutrients align closely with previous studies. The new FFQ is a useful tool for dietary assessment in the Serbian population.

Replacement of nitrates and nitrites in meat-derived foods through the utilization of coagulase-negative staphylococci: A review

Nitrates and nitrites, which are synthetic additives, are traditionally used as curing agents in meat-based products. These synthetic additives are employed in the preparation of fermented meat foods to improve quality characteristics and microbiological safety, develop distinct flavours and red-colour stability, and counteract lipid oxidation. Nitrites also display significant bacteriostatic and bactericidal action against spoilage microorganisms and foodborne pathogens (such as Clostridium botulinum and Listeria monocytogenes). However, meat curing is currently under scrutiny because of its links to cardiovascular diseases and colorectal cancer. Based on the current literature, this review provides recent scientific evidence on the potential utilisation of coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS) as nitrate and nitrite substitutes in meat-based foods. Indeed, CNS are reported to reproduce the characteristic red pigmentation and maintain the typical high-quality traits of cured-meats, thanks to their arginine degradation pathway, thus providing the nitrite-related desirable attributes in cured meat. The alternative strategy, still based on the NOS pathway, consisting of supplementing meat with arginine to release nitric oxide (NO) and obtain a meat characterised by the desired pinkish-red colour, is also reviewed. Exploiting NOS-positive CNS strains seems particularly challenging because of CNS technological adaptation and the oxygen dependency of the NOS reaction; however, this exploitation could represent a turning point in replacing nitrates and nitrites in meat foods.

Assessment of dietary exposure to food additives used in Polish processed meat products

Dietary exposure assessments have been performed for nitrites, phosphates, erythorbic acid, and sodium erythorbate in processed meat in Poland. The exposure has been estimated based on the maximum level of use of additives contained in Regulation - tier 2 and the concentration of additives in processed meat - tier 3, additionally for nitrites. Daily intake was estimated using 24-h recall, repeated three times. Exposure analyses were correlated with the frequency of occurrence of food additives based on label analysis (tiers 2a and 3a). The mean nitrite intake from processed meat at tier 2 was 0.1 mg/kg bw (143% ADI), 0.08 mg/kg bw (118% - ADI) at tier 2a, 0.03 mg/kg bw (43% - ADI) at tier 3, and 0.026 mg/kg bw (37% - ADI) at tier 3a. The mean intakes of phosphate and erythorbic acid/sodium erythorbate from processed meat were 3.26 and 0.54 mg/kg bw (8.2% and 9% - ADI), respectively at tier 2. None of the respondents exceeded the ADIs for phosphates or erythorbic acid/sodium erythorbate. In contrast, nitrite consumption is of great concern because of significant ADI exceedances, particularly among young children.

Effects of grafted myofibrillar protein as a phosphate replacer in brined pork loin

For the development of healthier meat products, the grafted myofibrillar protein was evaluated as an ingredient that can substitute phosphate in brined loin. Individual brine solutions, consisting of salt (negative control, NP), salt + sodium tripolyphosphate (positive control, PC), salt + myofibrillar protein without grafting (MP), salt + myofibrillar protein grafted at high concentration (GMP-H), and salt + myofibrillar protein grafted at low concentration (GMP-L), were added to the pork loin by 40% of their weight. Differential scanning calorimetry demonstrated that MP and GMP-H lowered the thermal energy for the transition of myosin and actin, thereby improving the thermal stability of pork loin and increasing protein solubility. Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis analysis showed that thicker protein bands appeared in MP and GMP-H samples while exhibiting increased pH values, moisture content, water holding capacity, and processing yield. Accordingly, the shear force of MP and GMP-H decreased. Lipid oxidation of pork loin was increased in MP, whereas it decreased in GMP-H. Thus, GMP-L is a potential substitute for phosphate since it improves physicochemical properties and prevents the lipid oxidation of pork loin.

Sustained release properties of cement-bonded composites with organic waste based anaerobic digestate as nutrient carriers for marine microalgae

Anaerobic digestate is an organic effluent from biogas plants that generate renewable energy from organic waste under anaerobic conditions. Cement-bonded digestate composites with digestates based on animal manure and food waste based were subjected to sustained release property tests to investigate their utility as nutrient carriers for phytoplankton grown in oligotrophic coastal seas. Batch experiments showed that inorganic phosphate, ammonium nitrogen, and dissolved organic nitrogen species were released from the cement-bonded digestate composite. The inorganic phosphate and ammonium nitrogen were used directly by phytoplankton. The amount of inorganic phosphate and ammonium nitrogen released from the cement-bonded digestate composite was strongly correlated with the inorganic phosphate or nitrogen levels in the composite. This correlation allowed us to estimate the amount of these compounds released from the cement-bonded digestate composite from their concentration of in the anaerobic digestate reactants. The nutrients released from the cement-bonded digestate composite were taken up by marine microalgae, making these composites an effective terrigenous nutrient carrier for the growth of marine microalgae. The cement-bonded digestate composite developed in this study connects terrigenous anaerobic digestate from biogas plants to oligotrophic coastal seas and thus creates a novel nutrient pathway.

Dietary Intake of Salt from Meat Products in Serbian Population

Salt intake above 5 g/day correlates with prevalence of hypertension and cardiovascular diseases (CVD). CVD, the leading cause of mortality and morbidity in Europe, account for 45% of all deaths, while, in Serbia in 2021, CVD accounted for 47.3%. The objective was to investigate salt content labelled on meat products from the Serbian market and estimate dietary exposure to salt from meat products in the Serbian population using consumption data. Data on salt content were collected from 339 meat products and classified in eight groups. Consumption data were collected using the EFSA EU Menu methodology (2017-2021) from 576 children and 3018 adults (145 pregnant women) in four geographical regions of Serbia. The highest salt content was in dry fermented sausages and dry meat, average 3.78 ± 0.37 g/100 g and 4.40 ± 1.21 g/100 g, respectively. The average intake of meat products is 45.21 ± 39.0 g/day and estimated daily salt intake from meat products per person is 1.192 g, which is 24% of the daily recommended amount. The actual meat product consumption and content of salt in meat products in Serbia present a risk factor for development of CVD and related comorbidities. A targeted strategy, policy and legislation for salt reduction are needed.

Sustainable or Not? Insights on the Consumption of Animal Products in Poland

Animal products are one of the main constituents of the human diet. They are the main source of energy, proteins, microelements, and bioactive substances. The most popular negative health impacts linked with the consumption of animal products are obesity, atherosclerosis, heart attacks, and cancer. Apart from human health, consuming animal products is also controversial lately, due to farm animals' well-being and environmental protection issues. Thus, within the context of sustainability, the consumption trends of animal products were investigated through our on-line questionnaire surveys. The following animal products were involved in the survey: unprocessed meat (pork, beef, lamb, veal, mutton, chicken, duck, goose, turkey), processed meat (cold-cuts, sausages, pates), fish products, and eggs. Our research concluded that consumption among respondents with higher education was unsustainable for both unprocessed and processed meat, as eating habits in terms of type and quantity of consumed meat indicated respondents' unawareness. The consumption of fish products was also revealed as unsustainable regarding the quantity of fish consumed in terms of its beneficial nutritional values. Egg consumption was revealed as the most sustainable among the investigated animal products. However, insignificant egg consumption among the respondents showed the actual need of social education in terms of the current knowledge regarding the beneficial aspects of eggs.

Risk Assessment of Nitrite and Nitrate Intake from Processed Meat Products: Results from the Hellenic National Nutrition and Health Survey (HNNHS)

Long-term exposure to a high nitrite and nitrate intake through processed meat is of concern, as it has been related to adverse health effects. Individual consumption data from 2152 participants (46.7% males) in the Hellenic National Nutrition and Health Survey (HNNHS) were linked with current Maximum Permitted Levels (MPLs) to calculate exposure to nitrite and nitrate from processed meat products (assessed as nitrite equivalent), evaluate potential risk and identify the major contributors. Processed meat intakes were determined by combining data from 24 h recalls and frequency of consumption reported in Food Propensity Questionnaires (FPQs). Median exposure was estimated to be within safe levels for all population groups. However, 6.6% (n = 143) of the consumers exceeded the Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) of nitrite (0.07 mg/kg bw/day), of which 20.3% were children aged 0-9 years (N = 29) (15.3% of all children participants in the study, N = 190). In total, pork meat was the major contributor (41.5%), followed by turkey meat (32.7%) and sausages (23.8%), although contribution variations were found among age groups. The outcomes are of public health concern, especially exposure among children, and future research is warranted to evaluate possible associations with health effects, by using more refined occurrence data if available.

Implementation of Harmonized Food Consumption Data Collection in the Balkan Region According to the EFSA EU Menu Methodology Standards

Initiatives in the Capacity Development in Nutrition Research in the Balkan region in the last decade have been toward the creation of contemporary, harmonized Research Infrastructure (RI) compliant with European standards. This study describes the process of creation and implementation of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) EU Menu methodology in the Balkan region during the EFSA support projects for food consumption data collection in four countries (Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and North Macedonia). This process entailed the application and improvement of an innovative tool, the DIET ASSESS and PLAN (DAP), a platform for standardized food consumption data collection and dietary intake assessment. DAP comprises computerized food consumption, anthropometric measurements, and physical activity questionnaires, validated food picture book, and FoodEx2 exposure hierarchy with sets of facet descriptors of the interest. It hosts the Balkan food platform with a Serbian food composition database (FCDB) and Regional FCDB, compliant with European Food Information Resource (EuroFIR™) standards. The implementation of the DAP platform in national dietary surveys conducted with the support of the EFSA EU Menu project in Balkan countries enabled harmonized food consumption data compilation and reporting. Application of the methodology entailed the development of study protocol and extensive education and training of study personnel. The entire data collection process was managed by internal and external survey coordinators. A pilot study was conducted to test the entire data collection and control process and was afterward used to make necessary improvements and adjustments to meet EU Menu requirements. Data collected are internationally comparable with food consumption data in other European countries within the framework of the EU Menu program. The existence of such data in the Balkan region will catalyze research activities in emerging topics, such as identification of dietary patterns, the establishment of national nutrient reference values and food-based dietary guidelines (not only in Serbia, but in the whole Balkan region), dietary exposure assessments, the endorsement and evaluation of new food legislations, the environmental and other effects of diet on the food system. The developed and implemented methodology underpins evidence-based policy-making processes lacking in the field of public health nutrition in the region.