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Uno Y, Makiguchi M, Ushirozako G, Tsukiyama-Kohara K, Shimizu M, Yamazaki H. Molecular and functional characterization of flavin-containing monooxygenases (FMO1-6) in tree shrews. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2024; 277:109835. [PMID: 38215804 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2024.109835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2023] [Revised: 12/08/2023] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 01/14/2024]
Abstract
Flavin-containing monooxygenases (FMOs) are a family of important drug oxygenation enzymes that, in humans, consist of five functional enzymes (FMO1-5) and a pseudogene (FMO6P). The tree shrew is a non-rodent primate-like species that is used in various biomedical studies, but its usefulness in drug metabolism research has not yet been investigated. In this study, tree shrew FMO1-6 cDNAs were isolated and characterized by sequence analysis, tissue expression, and metabolic function. Compared with human FMOs, tree shrew FMOs showed sequence identities of 85-90 % and 81-89 %, respectively, for cDNA and amino acids. Phylogenetic analysis showed that each tree shrew and human FMO were closely clustered. The genomic and genetic structures of the FMO genes were conserved in tree shrews and humans. Among the five tissue types analyzed (lung, heart, kidney, small intestine, and liver), FMO3 and FMO1 mRNAs were most abundant in liver and kidney, respectively. Recombinant tree shrew FMO1-6 proteins expressed in bacterial membranes all mediated benzydamine and trimethylamine N-oxygenations and methyl p-tolyl sulfide S-oxygenation. The selective human FMO3 substrate trimethylamine was predominantly metabolized by tree shrew FMO3. Additionally, tree shrew FMO6 was active toward trimethylamine, as is cynomolgus macaque FMO6, in contrast with the absence of activity of the human FMO6P pseudogene product. Tree shrew FMO1-6, which are orthologous to human FMOs (FMO1-5 and FMO6P) were identified, and tree shrew FMO3 has functional and molecular features generally comparable to those of human FMO3 as the predominant FMO in liver.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuhiro Uno
- Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima-city, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan.
| | - Miaki Makiguchi
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| | - Genki Ushirozako
- Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima-city, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan
| | - Kyoko Tsukiyama-Kohara
- Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima-city, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan
| | - Makiko Shimizu
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Yamazaki
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan.
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Oktaviono YH, Lamara AD, Tri Saputra PB, Arnindita JN, Pasahari D, Saputra ME, Made Adnya Suasti N. The roles of trimethylamine-N-oxide in atherosclerosis and its potential therapeutic aspect: A literature review. BIOMOLECULES & BIOMEDICINE 2023; 23:936-948. [PMID: 37337893 PMCID: PMC10655873 DOI: 10.17305/bb.2023.8893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2023] [Revised: 05/21/2023] [Accepted: 05/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/21/2023]
Abstract
Current research supports the evidence that the gut microbiome (GM), which consist of gut microbiota and their biologically active metabolites, is associated with atherosclerosis development. Trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO), a metabolite produced by the GM through trimethylamine (TMA) oxidation, significantly enhances the formation and vulnerability of atherosclerotic plaques. TMAO promotes inflammation and oxidative stress in endothelial cells, leading to vascular dysfunction and plaque formation. Dimethyl-1-butanol (DMB), iodomethylcholine (IMC) and fluoromethylcholine (FMC) have been recognized for their ability to reduce plasma TMAO by inhibiting trimethylamine lyase, a bacterial enzyme involved in the choline cleavage anaerobic process, thus reducing TMA formation. Conversely, indole-3-carbinol (I3C) and trigonelline inhibit TMA oxidation by inhibiting flavin-containing monooxygenase-3 (FMO3), resulting in reduced plasma TMAO. The combined use of inhibitors of choline trimethylamine lyase and flavin-containing monooxygenase-3 could provide novel therapeutic strategies for cardiovascular disease prevention by stabilizing existing atherosclerotic plaques. This review aims to present the current evidence of the roles of TMA/TMAO in atherosclerosis as well as its potential therapeutic prevention aspects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yudi Her Oktaviono
- Department of Cardiology and Vascular Medicine, General Hospital Dr. Soetomo, Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia
| | - Ariikah Dyah Lamara
- Department of Cardiology and Vascular Medicine, General Hospital Dr. Soetomo, Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia
| | - Pandit Bagus Tri Saputra
- Department of Cardiology and Vascular Medicine, General Hospital Dr. Soetomo, Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia
| | | | - Diar Pasahari
- Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia
| | - Mahendra Eko Saputra
- Department of Cardiology and Vascular Medicine, General Hospital Dr. Soetomo, Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia
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Iglesias-Carres L, Chadwick-Corbin SA, Sweet MG, Neilson AP. Dietary phenolics and their microbial metabolites are poor inhibitors of trimethylamine oxidation to trimethylamine N-oxide by hepatic flavin monooxygenase 3. J Nutr Biochem 2023; 120:109428. [PMID: 37549832 DOI: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2023.109428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Revised: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/02/2023] [Indexed: 08/09/2023]
Abstract
High circulating levels of trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) have been associated with cardiovascular disease risk. TMAO is formed through a microbiome-host pathway utilizing primarily dietary choline as a substrate. Specific gut microbiota transform choline into trimethylamine (TMA), and, when absorbed, host hepatic flavin-containing monooxygenase 3 (FMO3) oxidizes TMA into TMAO. Chlorogenic acid and its metabolites reduce microbial TMA production in vitro. However, little is known regarding the potential for chlorogenic acid and its bioavailable metabolites to inhibit the last step: hepatic conversion of TMA to TMAO. We developed a screening methodology to study FMO3-catalyzed production of TMAO from TMA. HepG2 cells were unable to oxidize TMA into TMAO due to their lack of FMO3 expression. Although Hepa-1 cells did express FMO3 when pretreated with TMA and NADPH, they lacked enzymatic activity to produce TMAO. Rat hepatic microsomes contained active FMO3. Optimal reaction conditions were: 50 µM TMA, 0.2 mM NADPH, and 33 µL microsomes/mL reaction. Methimazole (a known FMO3 competitive substrate) at 200 µM effectively reduced FMO3-catalyzed conversion of TMA to TMAO. However, bioavailable chlorogenic acid metabolites did not generally inhibit FMO3 at physiological (1 µM) nor supra-physiological (50 µM) doses. Thus, the effects of chlorogenic acid in regulating TMAO levels in vivo are unlikely to occur through direct FMO3 enzyme inhibition. Potential effects on FMO3 expression remain unknown. Intestinal inhibition of TMA production and/or absorption are thus likely their primary mechanisms of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisard Iglesias-Carres
- Plants for Human Health Institute, North Carolina State University, Kannapolis, North Carolina, USA
| | - Sydney A Chadwick-Corbin
- Plants for Human Health Institute, North Carolina State University, Kannapolis, North Carolina, USA
| | - Michael G Sweet
- Plants for Human Health Institute, North Carolina State University, Kannapolis, North Carolina, USA
| | - Andrew P Neilson
- Plants for Human Health Institute, North Carolina State University, Kannapolis, North Carolina, USA; Department of Food, Bioprocessing, and Nutrition Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA.
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Ciccone MM, Lepera ME, Guaricci AI, Forleo C, Cafiero C, Colella M, Palmirotta R, Santacroce L. Might Gut Microbiota Be a Target for a Personalized Therapeutic Approach in Patients Affected by Atherosclerosis Disease? J Pers Med 2023; 13:1360. [PMID: 37763128 PMCID: PMC10532785 DOI: 10.3390/jpm13091360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2023] [Revised: 09/01/2023] [Accepted: 09/04/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
In recent years, the increasing number of studies on the relationship between the gut microbiota and atherosclerosis have led to significant interest in this subject. The gut microbiota, its metabolites (metabolome), such as TMAO, and gut dysbiosis play an important role in the development of atherosclerosis. Furthermore, inflammation, originating from the intestinal tract, adds yet another mechanism by which the human ecosystem is disrupted, resulting in the manifestation of metabolic diseases and, by extension, cardiovascular diseases. The scientific community must understand and elucidate these mechanisms in depth, to gain a better understanding of the relationship between atherosclerosis and the gut microbiome and to promote the development of new therapeutic targets in the coming years. This review aims to present the knowledge acquired so far, to trigger others to further investigate this intriguing topic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Matteo Ciccone
- Cardiology Unit, Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, 70124 Bari, Italy; (M.M.C.); (M.E.L.); (A.I.G.); (C.F.)
| | - Mario Erminio Lepera
- Cardiology Unit, Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, 70124 Bari, Italy; (M.M.C.); (M.E.L.); (A.I.G.); (C.F.)
| | - Andrea Igoren Guaricci
- Cardiology Unit, Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, 70124 Bari, Italy; (M.M.C.); (M.E.L.); (A.I.G.); (C.F.)
| | - Cinzia Forleo
- Cardiology Unit, Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, 70124 Bari, Italy; (M.M.C.); (M.E.L.); (A.I.G.); (C.F.)
| | - Concetta Cafiero
- Area of Molecular Pathology, Anatomic Pathology Unit, Fabrizio Spaziani Hospital, 03100 Frosinone, Italy;
| | - Marica Colella
- Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine, Section of Microbiology and Virology, School of Medicine, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, 70124 Bari, Italy; (M.C.); (L.S.)
| | - Raffele Palmirotta
- Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine, Section of Microbiology and Virology, School of Medicine, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, 70124 Bari, Italy; (M.C.); (L.S.)
| | - Luigi Santacroce
- Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine, Section of Microbiology and Virology, School of Medicine, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, 70124 Bari, Italy; (M.C.); (L.S.)
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