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Potęga A, Göldner V, Niehaves E, Paluszkiewicz E, Karst U. Electrochemistry/mass spectrometry (EC/MS) for fast generation and identification of novel reactive metabolites of two unsymmetrical bisacridines with anticancer activity. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2023; 235:115607. [PMID: 37523868 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2023.115607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2023] [Revised: 06/28/2023] [Accepted: 07/25/2023] [Indexed: 08/02/2023]
Abstract
The development of a new drug requires knowledge about its metabolic fate in a living organism, regarding the comprehensive assessment of both drug therapeutic activity and toxicity profiles. Electrochemistry (EC) coupled with mass spectrometry (MS) is an efficient tool for predicting the phase I metabolism of redox-sensitive drugs. In particular, EC/MS represents a clear advantage for the generation of reactive drug transformation products and their direct identification compared to biological matrices. In this work, we focused on the characterization of novel electrochemical products of two representative unsymmetrical bisacridines (C-2028 and C-2045) with demonstrated high anticancer activity. The electrochemical thin-layer flow-through cell μ-PrepCell 2.0 (Antec Scientific) was used here for the effective metabolite electrosynthesis. The electrochemical simulation of C-2028 reductive and C-2045 oxidative metabolism resulted in the generation of new products that were not observed before. The formation of nitroso [M-O+H]+ and azoxy [2M-3O+H]+ species from C-2028, as well as a series of hydroxylated and/or dehydrogenated products, including possible quinones [M-2H+H]+ and [M+O-2H+H]+ from C-2045, was demonstrated. For the latter, a glutathione S-conjugate (m/z 935.3130) was also obtained in measurements supplemented with the excess of reduced glutathione. For the identification of the products of interest, structural confirmation based on MS/MS fragmentation experiments was performed. Novel products of electrochemical conversions of unsymmetrical bisacridines were discussed in the context of their possible biological effect on the human organism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Potęga
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry and BioTechMed Center, Gdańsk University of Technology, Gabriela Narutowicza Street 11/12, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland.
| | - Valentin Göldner
- Institute of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstraße 48, 48149 Münster, Germany; International Graduate School for Battery Chemistry, Characterization, Analysis, Recycling and Application (BACCARA), University of Münster, Corrensstraße 40, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Erik Niehaves
- Institute of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstraße 48, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Ewa Paluszkiewicz
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry and BioTechMed Center, Gdańsk University of Technology, Gabriela Narutowicza Street 11/12, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Uwe Karst
- Institute of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstraße 48, 48149 Münster, Germany; International Graduate School for Battery Chemistry, Characterization, Analysis, Recycling and Application (BACCARA), University of Münster, Corrensstraße 40, 48149 Münster, Germany
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Potęga A, Rafalska D, Kazimierczyk D, Kosno M, Pawłowicz A, Andrałojć W, Paluszkiewicz E, Laskowski T. In Vitro Enzyme Kinetics and NMR-Based Product Elucidation for Glutathione S-Conjugation of the Anticancer Unsymmetrical Bisacridine C-2028 in Liver Microsomes and Cytosol: Major Role of Glutathione S-Transferase M1-1 Isoenzyme. Molecules 2023; 28:6812. [PMID: 37836655 PMCID: PMC10574777 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28196812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Revised: 09/21/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023] Open
Abstract
This work is the next step in studying the interplay between C-2028 (anticancer-active unsymmetrical bisacridine developed in our group) and the glutathione S-transferase/glutathione (GST/GSH) system. Here, we analyzed the concentration- and pH-dependent GSH conjugation of C-2028 in rat liver microsomes and cytosol. We also applied three recombinant human GST isoenzymes, which altered expression was found in various tumors. The formation of GSH S-conjugate of C-2028 in liver subfractions followed Michaelis-Menten kinetics. We found that C-2028 was conjugated with GSH preferentially by GSTM1-1, revealing a sigmoidal kinetic model. Using a colorimetric assay (MTT test), we initially assessed the cellular GST/GSH-dependent biotransformation of C-2028 in relation to cytotoxicity against Du-145 human prostate cancer cells in the presence or absence of the modulator of GSH biosynthesis. Pretreatment of cells with buthionine sulfoximine resulted in a cytotoxicity decrease, suggesting a possible GSH-mediated bioactivation process. Altogether, our results confirmed the importance of GSH conjugation in C-2028 metabolism, which humans must consider when planning a treatment strategy. Finally, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy elucidated the structure of the GSH-derived product of C-2028. Hence, synthesizing the compound standard necessary for further advanced biological and bioanalytical investigations will be achievable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Potęga
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, Gabriela Narutowicza Str. 11/12, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland; (D.R.); (D.K.); (M.K.); (E.P.); (T.L.)
| | - Dominika Rafalska
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, Gabriela Narutowicza Str. 11/12, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland; (D.R.); (D.K.); (M.K.); (E.P.); (T.L.)
| | - Dawid Kazimierczyk
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, Gabriela Narutowicza Str. 11/12, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland; (D.R.); (D.K.); (M.K.); (E.P.); (T.L.)
| | - Michał Kosno
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, Gabriela Narutowicza Str. 11/12, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland; (D.R.); (D.K.); (M.K.); (E.P.); (T.L.)
| | - Aleksandra Pawłowicz
- Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Zygmunta Noskowskiego Str. 12/14, 61-704 Poznań, Poland; (A.P.); (W.A.)
| | - Witold Andrałojć
- Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Zygmunta Noskowskiego Str. 12/14, 61-704 Poznań, Poland; (A.P.); (W.A.)
| | - Ewa Paluszkiewicz
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, Gabriela Narutowicza Str. 11/12, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland; (D.R.); (D.K.); (M.K.); (E.P.); (T.L.)
| | - Tomasz Laskowski
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, Gabriela Narutowicza Str. 11/12, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland; (D.R.); (D.K.); (M.K.); (E.P.); (T.L.)
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Potęga A. Glutathione-Mediated Conjugation of Anticancer Drugs: An Overview of Reaction Mechanisms and Biological Significance for Drug Detoxification and Bioactivation. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27165252. [PMID: 36014491 PMCID: PMC9412641 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27165252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2022] [Revised: 08/13/2022] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The effectiveness of many anticancer drugs depends on the creation of specific metabolites that may alter their therapeutic or toxic properties. One significant route of biotransformation is a conjugation of electrophilic compounds with reduced glutathione, which can be non-enzymatic and/or catalyzed by glutathione-dependent enzymes. Glutathione usually combines with anticancer drugs and/or their metabolites to form more polar and water-soluble glutathione S-conjugates, readily excreted outside the body. In this regard, glutathione plays a role in detoxification, decreasing the likelihood that a xenobiotic will react with cellular targets. However, some drugs once transformed into thioethers are more active or toxic than the parent compound. Thus, glutathione conjugation may also lead to pharmacological or toxicological effects through bioactivation reactions. My purpose here is to provide a broad overview of the mechanisms of glutathione-mediated conjugation of anticancer drugs. Additionally, I discuss the biological importance of glutathione conjugation to anticancer drug detoxification and bioactivation pathways. I also consider the potential role of glutathione in the metabolism of unsymmetrical bisacridines, a novel prosperous class of anticancer compounds developed in our laboratory. The knowledge on glutathione-mediated conjugation of anticancer drugs presented in this review may be noteworthy for improving cancer therapy and preventing drug resistance in cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Potęga
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, Gabriela Narutowicza Str. 11/12, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland
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Kosno M, Laskowski T, Frackowiak JE, Potęga A, Kurdyn A, Andrałojć W, Borzyszkowska-Bukowska J, Szwarc-Karabyka K, Mazerska Z. Acid–Base Equilibrium and Self-Association in Relation to High Antitumor Activity of Selected Unsymmetrical Bisacridines Established by Extensive Chemometric Analysis. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27133995. [PMID: 35807234 PMCID: PMC9268451 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27133995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2022] [Revised: 06/18/2022] [Accepted: 06/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Unsymmetrical bisacridines (UAs) represent a novel class of anticancer agents previously synthesized by our group. Our recent studies have demonstrated their high antitumor potential against multiple cancer cell lines and human tumor xenografts in nude mice. At the cellular level, these compounds affected 3D cancer spheroid growth and their cellular uptake was selectively modulated by quantum dots. UAs were shown to undergo metabolic transformations in vitro and in tumor cells. However, the physicochemical properties of UAs, which could possibly affect their interactions with molecular targets, remain unknown. Therefore, we selected four highly active UAs for the assessment of physicochemical parameters under various pH conditions. We determined the compounds’ pKa dissociation constants as well as their potential to self-associate. Both parameters were determined by detailed and complex chemometric analysis of UV-Vis spectra supported by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. The obtained results indicate that general molecular properties of UAs in aqueous media, including their protonation state, self-association ratio, and solubility, are strongly pH-dependent, particularly in the physiological pH range of 6 to 8. In conclusion, we describe the detailed physicochemical characteristics of UAs, which might contribute to their selectivity towards tumour cells as opposed to their effect on normal cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michał Kosno
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biochemistry and BioMedTech Centre, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, Gabriela Narutowicza Str. 11/12, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland; (M.K.); (J.E.F.); (A.P.); (A.K.); (J.B.-B.)
| | - Tomasz Laskowski
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biochemistry and BioMedTech Centre, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, Gabriela Narutowicza Str. 11/12, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland; (M.K.); (J.E.F.); (A.P.); (A.K.); (J.B.-B.)
- Correspondence: (T.L.); (Z.M.); Tel.: +48-58-347-20-79 (T.L.); +48-58-347-24-07 (Z.M.)
| | - Joanna E. Frackowiak
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biochemistry and BioMedTech Centre, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, Gabriela Narutowicza Str. 11/12, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland; (M.K.); (J.E.F.); (A.P.); (A.K.); (J.B.-B.)
| | - Agnieszka Potęga
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biochemistry and BioMedTech Centre, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, Gabriela Narutowicza Str. 11/12, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland; (M.K.); (J.E.F.); (A.P.); (A.K.); (J.B.-B.)
| | - Agnieszka Kurdyn
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biochemistry and BioMedTech Centre, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, Gabriela Narutowicza Str. 11/12, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland; (M.K.); (J.E.F.); (A.P.); (A.K.); (J.B.-B.)
| | - Witold Andrałojć
- Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Zygmunta Noskowskiego Str. 12/14, 61-704 Poznań, Poland;
| | - Julia Borzyszkowska-Bukowska
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biochemistry and BioMedTech Centre, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, Gabriela Narutowicza Str. 11/12, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland; (M.K.); (J.E.F.); (A.P.); (A.K.); (J.B.-B.)
| | - Katarzyna Szwarc-Karabyka
- Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Laboratory, Gdańsk University of Technology, Gabriela Narutowicza Str. 11/12, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland;
| | - Zofia Mazerska
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biochemistry and BioMedTech Centre, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, Gabriela Narutowicza Str. 11/12, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland; (M.K.); (J.E.F.); (A.P.); (A.K.); (J.B.-B.)
- Correspondence: (T.L.); (Z.M.); Tel.: +48-58-347-20-79 (T.L.); +48-58-347-24-07 (Z.M.)
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Potęga A, Kosno M, Mazerska Z. Novel insights into conjugation of antitumor-active unsymmetrical bisacridine C-2028 with glutathione: Characteristics of non-enzymatic and glutathione S-transferase-mediated reactions. J Pharm Anal 2022; 11:791-798. [PMID: 35028185 PMCID: PMC8740389 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpha.2021.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2020] [Revised: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 03/31/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Unsymmetrical bisacridines (UAs) are a novel potent class of antitumor-active therapeutics. A significant route of phase II drug metabolism is conjugation with glutathione (GSH), which can be non-enzymatic and/or catalyzed by GSH-dependent enzymes. The aim of this work was to investigate the GSH-mediated metabolic pathway of a representative UA, C-2028. GSH-supplemented incubations of C-2028 with rat, but not with human, liver cytosol led to the formation of a single GSH-related metabolite. Interestingly, it was also revealed with rat liver microsomes. Its formation was NADPH-independent and was not inhibited by co-incubation with the cytochrome P450 (CYP450) inhibitor 1-aminobenzotriazole. Therefore, the direct conjugation pathway occurred without the prior CYP450-catalyzed bioactivation of the substrate. In turn, incubations of C-2028 and GSH with human recombinant glutathione S-transferase (GST) P1-1 or with heat-/ethacrynic acid-inactivated liver cytosolic enzymes resulted in the presence or lack of GSH conjugated form, respectively. These findings proved the necessary participation of GST in the initial activation of the GSH thiol group to enable a nucleophilic attack on the substrate molecule. Another C-2028-GSH S-conjugate was also formed during non-enzymatic reaction. Both GSH S-conjugates were characterized by combined liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry. Mechanisms for their formation were proposed. The ability of C-2028 to GST-mediated and/or direct GSH conjugation is suspected to be clinically important. This may affect the patient's drug clearance due to GST activity, loss of GSH, or the interactions with GSH-conjugated drugs. Moreover, GST-mediated depletion of cellular GSH may increase tumor cell exposure to reactive products of UA metabolic transformations. We investigated the GSH-mediated metabolic pathway of antitumor bisacridine C-2028. Non-enzymatic and GST-catalyzed GSH conjugation of C-2028 was observed. The action of human recombinant GSTP1-1 in C-2028 metabolism was proved. GSH conjugation occurred without the prior CYP450-mediated activation of C-2028. GSH conjugation of C-2028 molecule took place on the system containing nitro group.
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Kulesza J, Pawłowska M, Augustin E. The Influence of Antitumor Unsymmetrical Bisacridines on 3D Cancer Spheroids Growth and Viability. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26206262. [PMID: 34684841 PMCID: PMC8538688 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26206262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2021] [Revised: 10/04/2021] [Accepted: 10/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The culture of 3D spheroids is a promising tool in drug development and testing. Recently, we synthesized a new group of compounds, unsymmetrical bisacridines (UAs), which exhibit high cytotoxicity against various human cell lines and antitumor potency against several xenografts. Here, we describe the ability of four UAs—C-2028, C-2041, C-2045, and C-2053—to influence the growth of HCT116 and H460 spheres and the viability of HCT116 cells in 3D culture compared with that in 2D standard monolayer culture. Spheroids were generated using ultra-low-attachment plates. The morphology and diameters of the obtained spheroids and those treated with UAs were observed and measured under the microscope. The viability of cells exposed to UAs at different concentrations and for different incubation times in 2D and 3D cultures was assessed using 7-AAD staining. All UAs managed to significantly inhibit the growth of HCT116 and H460 spheroids. C-2045 and C-2053 caused the death of the largest population of HCT116 spheroid cells. Although C-2041 seemed to be the most effective in the 2D monolayer experiments, in 3D conditions, it turned out to be the weakest compound. The 3D spheroid culture seems to be a suitable method to examine the efficiency of new antitumor compounds, such as unsymmetrical bisacridines.
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