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Fadilah NIM, Fauzi MB, Maarof M. Effect of Multiple-Cycle Collections of Conditioned Media from Different Cell Sources towards Fibroblasts in In Vitro Wound Healing Model. Pharmaceutics 2024; 16:767. [PMID: 38931888 PMCID: PMC11207063 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics16060767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2024] [Revised: 05/23/2024] [Accepted: 05/23/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Conditioned media refers to a collection of the used cell culture media. The goal of this study was to evaluate the possible impacts of different conditioned media collected across a number of cycles on the fibroblast proliferation, migration, and profiles of protein release. Human dermal fibroblast (HDF) cells and Wharton jelly mesenchymal stem cells (WJMSC) were cultured and incubated for 3 days prior to being harvested as cycle-1 using the serum-free media F12:DMEM and DMEM, respectively. The procedures were repeatedly carried out until the fifth cycle of conditioned media collection. An in-vitro scratch assay was conducted to measure the effectiveness of wound healing. Collagen hydrogel was combined separately with both the Wharton jelly-conditioned medium (WJCM) and the dermal fibroblast-conditioned medium (DFCM) in order to evaluate the protein release profile. The conditioned medium from many cycles had a lower level of fibroblast attachment than the control (complete medium); however, the growth rate increased from 100 to 250 h-1, when supplemented with a conditioned medium collected from multiple cycles. The wound scratch assay showed that fibroblast cell migration was significantly increased by repeating cycles up to cycle-5 of DFCM, reaching 98.73 ± 1.11%. This was faster than the rate of migration observed in the cycle-5 of the WJCM group, which was 27.45 ± 5.55%. Collagen hydrogel from multiple cycles of DFCM and WJCM had a similar protein release profile. These findings demonstrate the potential for employing repeated cycles of DFCM- and WJCM-released proteins with collagen hydrogel for applications in wound healing.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Manira Maarof
- Centre for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur 56000, Malaysia; (N.I.M.F.); (M.B.F.)
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Fadilah NIM, Riha SM, Mazlan Z, Wen APY, Hao LQ, Joseph B, Maarof M, Thomas S, Motta A, Fauzi MB. Functionalised-biomatrix for wound healing and cutaneous regeneration: future impactful medical products in clinical translation and precision medicine. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2023; 11:1160577. [PMID: 37292094 PMCID: PMC10245056 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2023.1160577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2023] [Accepted: 05/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Skin tissue engineering possesses great promise in providing successful wound injury and tissue loss treatments that current methods cannot treat or achieve a satisfactory clinical outcome. A major field direction is exploring bioscaffolds with multifunctional properties to enhance biological performance and expedite complex skin tissue regeneration. Multifunctional bioscaffolds are three-dimensional (3D) constructs manufactured from natural and synthetic biomaterials using cutting-edge tissue fabrication techniques incorporated with cells, growth factors, secretomes, antibacterial compounds, and bioactive molecules. It offers a physical, chemical, and biological environment with a biomimetic framework to direct cells toward higher-order tissue regeneration during wound healing. Multifunctional bioscaffolds are a promising possibility for skin regeneration because of the variety of structures they provide and the capacity to customise the chemistry of their surfaces, which allows for the regulated distribution of bioactive chemicals or cells. Meanwhile, the current gap is through advanced fabrication techniques such as computational designing, electrospinning, and 3D bioprinting to fabricate multifunctional scaffolds with long-term safety. This review stipulates the wound healing processes used by commercially available engineered skin replacements (ESS), highlighting the demand for a multifunctional, and next-generation ESS replacement as the goals and significance study in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine (TERM). This work also scrutinise the use of multifunctional bioscaffolds in wound healing applications, demonstrating successful biological performance in the in vitro and in vivo animal models. Further, we also provided a comprehensive review in requiring new viewpoints and technological innovations for the clinical application of multifunctional bioscaffolds for wound healing that have been found in the literature in the last 5 years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nur Izzah Md Fadilah
- Centre for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Shaima Maliha Riha
- Centre for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Zawani Mazlan
- Centre for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Adzim Poh Yuen Wen
- Department of Surgery, Hospital Canselor Tuanku Muhriz, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Looi Qi Hao
- My Cytohealth Sdn Bhd Kuala Lumpur, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Blessy Joseph
- Business Innovation and Incubation Centre, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala, India
| | - Manira Maarof
- Centre for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Sabu Thomas
- International and Inter University Centre for Nanosciences and Nanotechnology, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala, India
| | - Antonella Motta
- Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Trento, Trento, Italy
| | - Mh Busra Fauzi
- Centre for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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Fadilah NIM, Ahmat N, Hao LQ, Maarof M, Rajab NF, Idrus RBH, Fauzi MB. Biological Safety Assessments of High-Purified Ovine Collagen Type I Biomatrix for Future Therapeutic Product: International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) and Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) Settings. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:polym15112436. [PMID: 37299233 DOI: 10.3390/polym15112436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2023] [Revised: 05/19/2023] [Accepted: 05/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Wound care management is incredibly challenging for chronic injuries, despite the availability of various types of wound care products in the market. However, most current wound-healing products do not attempt to mimic the extracellular matrix (ECM) and simply provide a barrier function or wound covering. Collagen is a natural polymer that involves a major constituent of the ECM protein, thus making it attractive to be used in skin tissue regeneration during wound healing. This study aimed to validate the biological safety assessments of ovine tendon collagen type-I (OTC-I) in the accredited laboratory under ISO and GLP settings. It is important to ensure that the biomatrix will not stimulate the immune system to produce any adverse reaction. Therefore, we successfully extracted collagen type-I from the ovine tendon (OTC- I) using a method of low-concentration acetic acid. The three-dimensional (3D) skin patch of spongy OTC-I was a soft and white colour, being tested for safety and biocompatibility evaluations based on ISO 10993-5, ISO 10993-10, ISO 10993-11, ISO 10993-23, USP 40 <151>, and OECD 471. For the dermal sensitisation and acute irritation test, none of the tested animals displayed any erythema or oedema effects (p > 0.005). In addition, there were no abnormalities detected in the organ of the mice after being exposed to OTC-I; additionally, no morbidity and mortality were observed in the acute systemic test under the guideline of ISO 10993-11:2017. The grade 0 (non-reactive) based on ISO 10993-5:2009 was graded for the OTC-I at 100% concentration and the mean number of the revertant colonies did not exceed 2-fold of the 0.9% w/v sodium chloride compared to the tester strains of S. typhimurium (TA100, TA1535, TA98, TA1537), and E. coli (WP2 trp uvrA). Our study revealed that OTC-I biomatrix does not present any adverse effects or abnormalities in the present study's condition of induced skin sensitization effect, mutagenic and cytotoxic towards cells and animals. This biocompatibility assessment demonstrated a good agreement between in vitro and in vivo results regarding the absence of skin irritation and sensitization potential. Therefore, OTC-I biomatrix is a potential medical device candidate for future clinical trials focusing on wound care management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nur Izzah Md Fadilah
- Centre for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur 56000, Malaysia
| | - Nazeha Ahmat
- Centre for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur 56000, Malaysia
| | - Looi Qi Hao
- Centre for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur 56000, Malaysia
- My Cytohealth Sdn. Bhd., Kuala Lumpur 56000, Malaysia
| | - Manira Maarof
- Centre for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur 56000, Malaysia
| | - Nor Fadilah Rajab
- Biomedical Science Program, Center for Healthy Aging and Wellness, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Jalan Raja Muda Abd Aziz, Kuala Lumpur 50300, Malaysia
| | - Ruszymah Binti Hj Idrus
- Centre for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur 56000, Malaysia
| | - Mh Busra Fauzi
- Centre for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur 56000, Malaysia
- My Cytohealth Sdn. Bhd., Kuala Lumpur 56000, Malaysia
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Fadilah NIM, Phang SJ, Kamaruzaman N, Salleh A, Zawani M, Sanyal A, Maarof M, Fauzi MB. Antioxidant Biomaterials in Cutaneous Wound Healing and Tissue Regeneration: A Critical Review. Antioxidants (Basel) 2023; 12:antiox12040787. [PMID: 37107164 DOI: 10.3390/antiox12040787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2022] [Revised: 02/21/2023] [Accepted: 03/07/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Natural-based biomaterials play an important role in developing new products for medical applications, primarily in cutaneous injuries. A large panel of biomaterials with antioxidant properties has revealed an advancement in supporting and expediting tissue regeneration. However, their low bioavailability in preventing cellular oxidative stress through the delivery system limits their therapeutic activity at the injury site. The integration of antioxidant compounds in the implanted biomaterial should be able to maintain their antioxidant activity while facilitating skin tissue recovery. This review summarises the recent literature that reported the role of natural antioxidant-incorporated biomaterials in promoting skin wound healing and tissue regeneration, which is supported by evidence from in vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies. Antioxidant-based therapies for wound healing have shown promising evidence in numerous animal studies, even though clinical studies remain very limited. We also described the underlying mechanism of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and provided a comprehensive review of ROS-scavenging biomaterials found in the literature in the last six years.
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Mirjalili F, Mahmoodi M. Controlled release of protein from gelatin/chitosan hydrogel containing platelet-rich fibrin encapsulated in chitosan nanoparticles for accelerated wound healing in an animal model. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 225:588-604. [PMID: 36403766 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.11.117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2022] [Revised: 11/10/2022] [Accepted: 11/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The physiological healing process is disrupted in many cases using the current wound healing procedures, resulting in delayed wound healing. Hydrogel wound dressings provide a moist environment to enhance granulation tissue and epithelium formation in the wound area. However, exudate accumulation, bacterial proliferation, and reduced levels of growth factors are difficulties of hydrogel dressings. Here, we loaded platelet-rich fibrin-chitosan (CH-PRF) nanoparticles into the gelatin-chitosan hydrogel (Gel-CH/CH-PRF) by solvent mixing method. Our goal was to evaluate the characteristics of hydrogel dressings, sustained release of proteins from the hydrogel dressing containing PRF, and reduction in the risk of infection by the bacteria in the wound area. The Gel-CH/CH-PRF hydrogel showed excellent swelling behavior, good porosity, proper specific surface area, high absorption of wound exudates, and proper vapor permeability rate (2023 g/m 2.day), which provided requisite moisture without dehydration around the wound area. Thermal behavior and the protein release from the hydrogels were investigated using simultaneous thermal analysis and the Bradford test, respectively. Most importantly, an excellent ability to control the release of proteins from the hydrogel dressings was observed. The high antimicrobial activity of hydrogel was confirmed using Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Due to the presence of chitosan in the hydrogels, the lowest scavenging capacity-50 value (5.82 μgmL-1) and the highest DPPH radical scavenging activity (83 %) at a concentration 25 μgmL-1 for Gel-CH/CH-PRF hydrogel were observed. Also, the hydrogels revealed excellent cell viability and proliferation. The wound healing process was studied using an in vivo model of the full-thickness wound. The wound closure was significantly higher on Gel-CH/CH-PRF hydrogel compared to the control group, indicating the highest epidermis thickness, and enhancing the formation of new granulation tissue. Our findings demonstrated that Gel-CH/CH-PRF hydrogel can provide an ideal wound dressing for accelerated wound healing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatemeh Mirjalili
- Department of Material Engineering, Maybod Branch, Islamic Azad University, Maybod, Iran
| | - Mahboobeh Mahmoodi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yazd Branch, Islamic Azad University, Yazd, 8915813135, Iran; Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, United States of America.
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The Discovery and Development of Natural-Based Biomaterials with Demonstrated Wound Healing Properties: A Reliable Approach in Clinical Trials. Biomedicines 2022; 10:biomedicines10092226. [PMID: 36140332 PMCID: PMC9496351 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10092226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2022] [Revised: 09/04/2022] [Accepted: 09/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Current research across the globe still focuses strongly on naturally derived biomaterials in various fields, particularly wound care. There is a need for more effective therapies that will address the physiological deficiencies underlying chronic wound treatment. The use of moist bioactive scaffolds has significantly increased healing rates compared to local and traditional treatments. However, failure to heal or prolonging the wound healing process results in increased financial and social stress imposed on health institutions, caregivers, patients, and their families. The urgent need to identify practical, safe, and cost-effective wound healing scaffolding from natural-based biomaterials that can be introduced into clinical practice is unequivocal. Naturally derived products have long been used in wound healing; however, clinical trial evaluations of these therapies are still in their infancy. Additionally, further well-designed clinical trials are necessary to confirm the efficacy and safety of natural-based biomaterials in treating wounds. Thus, the focus of this review is to describe the current insight, the latest discoveries in selected natural-based wound healing implant products, the possible action mechanisms, and an approach to clinical studies. We explore several tested products undergoing clinical trials as a novel approach to counteract the debilitating effects of impaired wound healing.
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7
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Belvedere R, Novizio N, Morello S, Petrella A. The combination of mesoglycan and VEGF promotes skin wound repair by enhancing the activation of endothelial cells and fibroblasts and their cross-talk. Sci Rep 2022; 12:11041. [PMID: 35773320 PMCID: PMC9247059 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-15227-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2022] [Accepted: 06/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Skin wound healing requires accurate therapeutic topical managements to accelerate tissue regeneration. Here, for the first time, we found that the association mesoglycan/VEGF has a strong pro-healing activity. In detail, this combination induces angiogenesis in human endothelial cells promoting in turn fibroblasts recruitment. These ones acquire a notable ability to invade the matrigel coating and to secrete an active form of metalloproteinase 2 in presence of endothelial cells treated with mesoglycan/VEGF. Next, by creating intrascapular lesions on the back of C57Bl6 mice, we observed that the topical treatments with the mesoglycan/VEGF promotes the closure of wounds more than the single substances beside the control represented by a saline solution. As revealed by eosin/hematoxylin staining of mice skin biopsies, treatment with the combination mesoglycan/VEGF allows the formation of a well-structured matrix with a significant number of new vessels. Immunofluorescence analyses have revealed the presence of endothelial cells at the closed region of wounds, as evaluated by CD31, VE-cadherin and fibronectin staining and of activated fibroblasts assessed by vimentin, col1A and FAP1α. These results encourage defining the association mesoglycan/VEGF to activate endothelial and fibroblast cell components in skin wound healing promoting the creation of new vessels and the deposition of granulation tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raffaella Belvedere
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II, 132, 84084, Fisciano, Salerno, Italy.
| | - Nunzia Novizio
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II, 132, 84084, Fisciano, Salerno, Italy
| | - Silvana Morello
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II, 132, 84084, Fisciano, Salerno, Italy
| | - Antonello Petrella
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II, 132, 84084, Fisciano, Salerno, Italy.
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Fadilah NIM, Isa ILM, Zaman WSWK, Tabata Y, Fauzi MB. The Effect of Nanoparticle-Incorporated Natural-Based Biomaterials towards Cells on Activated Pathways: A Systematic Review. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:476. [PMID: 35160466 PMCID: PMC8838324 DOI: 10.3390/polym14030476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2021] [Revised: 12/30/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The advancement of natural-based biomaterials in providing a carrier has revealed a wide range of benefits in the biomedical sciences, particularly in wound healing, tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. Incorporating nanoparticles within polymer composites has been reported to enhance scaffolding performance, cellular interactions and their physico-chemical and biological properties in comparison to analogue composites without nanoparticles. This review summarized the current knowledge of nanoparticles incorporated into natural-based biomaterials with effects on their cellular interactions in wound healing. Although the mechanisms of wound healing and the function of specific cells in wound repair have been partially described, many of the underlying signaling pathways remain unknown. We also reviewed the current understanding and new insights into the wingless/integrated (Wnt)/β-catenin pathway and other signaling pathways of transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β), Notch, and Sonic hedgehog during wound healing. The findings demonstrated that most of the studies reported positive outcomes of biomaterial scaffolds incorporated with nanoparticles on cell attachment, viability, proliferation, and migration. Combining therapies consisting of nanoparticles and biomaterials could be promising for future therapies and better outcomes in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nur Izzah Md Fadilah
- Centre for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Jalan Yaacob Latiff, Bandar Tun Razak, Kuala Lumpur 56000, Malaysia;
| | - Isma Liza Mohd Isa
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Jalan Yaacob Latiff, Bandar Tun Razak, Kuala Lumpur 56000, Malaysia;
| | - Wan Safwani Wan Kamarul Zaman
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia;
- Centre for Innovation in Medical Engineering, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
| | - Yasuhiko Tabata
- Laboratory of Biomaterials, Department of Regeneration Science and Engineering, Institute for Frontier Life and Medical Sciences, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8397, Japan;
| | - Mh Busra Fauzi
- Centre for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Jalan Yaacob Latiff, Bandar Tun Razak, Kuala Lumpur 56000, Malaysia;
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Md Fadilah NI, Mohd Abdul Kader Jailani MS, Badrul Hisham MAI, Sunthar Raj N, Shamsuddin SA, Ng MH, Fauzi MB, Maarof M. Cell secretomes for wound healing and tissue regeneration: Next generation acellular based tissue engineered products. J Tissue Eng 2022; 13:20417314221114273. [PMID: 35923177 PMCID: PMC9340325 DOI: 10.1177/20417314221114273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2022] [Accepted: 07/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Wound represents a significant socioeconomic burden for both affected individuals and as a whole healthcare system. Accordingly, stem cells have garnered attention due to their differentiation capacity and ability to aid tissue regeneration by releasing biologically active molecules, found in the cells' cultivated medium which known as conditioned medium (CM) or secretomes. This acellular approach provides a huge advantage over conventional treatment options, which are mainly used cellular treatment at wound closure. Interestingly, the secretomes contained the cell-secreted proteins such as growth factors, cytokines, chemokines, extracellular matrix (ECM), and small molecules including metabolites, microvesicles, and exosomes. This review aims to provide a general view on secretomes and how it is proven to have great potential in accelerating wound healing. Utilizing the use of secretomes with its secreted proteins and suitable biomaterials for fabrications of acellular skin substitutes can be promising in treating skin loss and accelerate the healing process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nur Izzah Md Fadilah
- Centre for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative
Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
| | | | - Muhd Aliff Iqmal Badrul Hisham
- Centre for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative
Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
| | - Nithiaraj Sunthar Raj
- Centre for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative
Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
| | - Sharen Aini Shamsuddin
- Centre for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative
Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
| | - Min Hwei Ng
- Centre for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative
Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
| | - Mh Busra Fauzi
- Centre for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative
Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
| | - Manira Maarof
- Centre for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative
Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
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