Importance of Nanoparticles for the Delivery of Antiparkinsonian Drugs

Gold Nanoparticles in Parkinson's Disease Therapy: A Focus on Plant-Based Green Synthesis

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease that affects approximately 1% of people over the age of 60 and 5% of those over the age of 85. Current drugs for Parkinson's disease mainly affect the symptoms and cannot stop its progression. Nanotechnology provides a solution to address some challenges in therapy, such as overcoming the blood-brain barrier (BBB), adverse pharmacokinetics, and the limited bioavailability of therapeutics. The reformulation of drugs into nanoparticles (NPs) can improve their biodistribution, protect them from degradation, reduce the required dose, and ensure target accumulation. Furthermore, appropriately designed nanoparticles enable the combination of diagnosis and therapy with a single nanoagent. In recent years, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have been studied with increasing interest due to their intrinsic nanozyme activity. They can mimic the action of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and peroxidase. The use of 13-nm gold nanoparticles (CNM-Au8®) in bicarbonate solution is being studied as a potential treatment for Parkinson's disease and other neurological illnesses. CNM-Au8® improves remyelination and motor functions in experimental animals. Among the many techniques for nanoparticle synthesis, green synthesis is increasingly used due to its simplicity and therapeutic potential. Green synthesis relies on natural and environmentally friendly materials, such as plant extracts, to reduce metal ions and form nanoparticles. Moreover, the presence of bioactive plant compounds on their surface increases the therapeutic potential of these nanoparticles. The present article reviews the possibilities of nanoparticles obtained by green synthesis to combine the therapeutic effects of plant components with gold.

Recent Trends in Nanomaterial Based Electrochemical Sensors for Drug Detection: Considering Green Assessment

An individual's therapeutic drug exposure level is directly linked to corresponding clinical effects. Rapid, sensitive, inexpensive, portable and reliable devices are needed for diagnosis related to drug exposure, treatment, and prognosis of diseases. Electrochemical sensors are useful for drug monitoring due to their high sensitivity and fast response time. Also, they can be combined with portable signal read-out devices for point-of-care applications. In recent years, nanomaterials such as carbon-based, carbon-metal nanocomposites, noble nanomaterials have been widely used to modify electrode surfaces due to their outstanding features including catalytic abilities, conductivity, chemical stability, biocompatibility for development of electrochemical sensors. This review paper presents the most recent advances about nanomaterials-based electrochemical sensors including the use of green assessment approach for detection of drugs including anticancer, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and antibiotics covering the period from 2019 to 2023. The sensor characteristics such as analyte interactions, fabrication, sensitivity, and selectivity are also discussed. In addition, the current challenges and potential future directions of the field are highlighted.

Nanocarrier Mediated Intranasal Drug Delivery Systems for the Management of Parkinsonism: A Review

The transport of drugs to the brain becomes a key concern when treating disorders of the central nervous system. Parkinsonism is one of the major concerns across the world populations, which causes difficulty in coordination and balance. However, the blood-brain barrier is a significant barrier to achieving optimal brain concentration through oral, transdermal, and intravenous routes of administration. The intranasal route with nanocarrier-based formulations has shown potential for managing Parkinsonism disorder (PD). Direct delivery to the brain through the intranasal route is possible via the olfactory and trigeminal pathways using drug-loaded nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems. The critical analysis of reported works demonstrates dose reduction, brain targeting, safety, effectiveness, and stability for drug-loaded nanocarriers. The important aspects of intranasal drug delivery, PD details, and nanocarrier-based intranasal formulations in PD management with a discussion of physicochemical characteristics, cell line studies, and animal studies are the major topics in this review. Patent reports and clinical investigations are summarized in the last sections.

Levodopa-loaded nanoparticles for the treatment of Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) resulting in dopamine (DA) deficiency, which manifests itself in motor symptoms including tremors, rigidity and bradykinesia. Current PD treatments aim at symptom reduction through oral delivery of levodopa (L-DOPA), a precursor of DA. However, L-DOPA delivery to the brain is inefficient and increased dosages are required as the disease progresses, resulting in serious side effects like dyskinesias. To improve PD treatment efficacy and to reduce side effects, recent research focuses on the encapsulation of L-DOPA into polymeric- and lipid-based nanoparticles (NPs). These formulations can protect L-DOPA from systemic decarboxylation into DA and improve L-DOPA delivery to the central nervous system. Additionally, NPs can be modified with proteins, peptides and antibodies specifically targeting the blood-brain barrier (BBB), thereby reducing required dosages and free systemic DA. Alternative delivery approaches for NP-encapsulated L-DOPA include intravenous (IV) administration, transdermal delivery using adhesive patches and direct intranasal administration, facilitating increased therapeutic DA concentrations in the brain. This review provides an overview of the recent advances for NP-mediated L-DOPA delivery to the brain, and debates challenges and future perspectives on the field.

Efficacy of invasive and non-invasive methods for the treatment of Parkinson's disease: Nanodelivery and enriched environment

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder characterised by the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta and the subsequent motor disability. The most frequently used treatments in clinics, such as L-DOPA, restore dopaminergic neurotransmission in the brain. However, these treatments are only symptomatic, have temporary efficacy, and produce side effects. Part of the side effects are related to the route of administration as the consumption of oral tablets leads to unspecific pulsatile activation of dopaminergic receptors. For this reason, it is necessary to not only find alternative treatments, but also to develop new administration systems with better security profiles. Nanoparticle delivery systems are new administration forms designed to reach the pharmacological target in a highly specific way, leading to better drug bioavailability, efficacy and safety. Some of these delivery systems have shown promising results in animal models of PD not only when dopaminergic drugs are administered, but even more when neurotrophic factors are released. These latter compounds promote maturation and survival of dopaminergic neurons and can be exogenously administered in the form of pharmacological therapy or endogenously generated by non-pharmacological methods. In this sense, experimental exposure to enriched environments, a non-invasive strategy based on the combination of social and inanimate stimuli, enhances the production of neurotrophic factors and produces a neuroprotective effect in parkinsonian animals. In this review, we will discuss new nanodelivery systems in PD with a special focus on therapies that increase the release of neurotrophic factors.

Intranasal cerium oxide nanoparticles improves locomotor activity and reduces oxidative stress and neuroinflammation in haloperidol-induced parkinsonism in rats

Introduction: Cerium oxide nanoparticles (CONPs) have been investigated for their therapeutic potential in Parkinson's disease (PD) due to their potent and regenerative antioxidant activity. In the present study, CONPs were used to ameliorate the oxidative stress caused by free radicals in haloperidol-induced PD in rats following intranasal administration. Method: The antioxidant potential of the CONPs was evaluated in vitro using ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay. The penetration and local toxicity of the CONPs was evaluated ex-vivo using goat nasal mucosa. The acute local toxicity of intranasal CONPs was also studied in rat. Gamma scintigraphy was used to assess the targeted brain delivery of CONPs. Acute toxicity studies were performed in rats to demonstrate safety of intranasal CONPs. Further, open field test, pole test, biochemical estimations and brain histopathology was performed to evaluate efficacy of intranasal CONPs in haloperidol-induced PD rat model. Results: The FRAP assay revealed highest antioxidant activity of prepared CONPs at a concentration of 25 μg/mL. Confocal microscopy showed deep and homogenous distribution of CONPs in the goat nasal mucus layers. No signs of irritation or injury were seen in goat nasal membrane when treated with optimized CONPs. Scintigraphy studies in rats showed targeted brain delivery of intranasal CONPs and acute toxicity study demonstrated safety. The results of open field and pole test showed highly significant (p < 0.001) improvement in locomotor activity of rats treated with intranasal CONPs compared to untreated rats. Further, brain histopathology of treatment group rats showed reduced neurodegeneration with presence of more live cells. The amount of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) was reduced significantly, whereas the levels of catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and GSH were increased significantly, while amounts of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) showed significant reduction after intranasal administration of CONPs. Also, the intranasal CONPs, significantly high (p < 0.001) dopamine concentration (13.93 ± 0.85 ng/mg protein) as compared to haloperidol-induced control rats (5.76 ± 0.70 ng/mg protein). Conclusion: The overall results concluded that the intranasal CONPs could be safe and effective therapeutics for the management of PD.

An update on pathogenesis and clinical scenario for Parkinson's disease: diagnosis and treatment

In severe cases, Parkinson's disease causes uncontrolled movements known as motor symptoms such as dystonia, rigidity, bradykinesia, and tremors. Parkinson's disease also causes non-motor symptoms such as insomnia, constipation, depression and hysteria. Disruption of dopaminergic and non-dopaminergic neural networks in the substantia nigra pars compacta is a major cause of motor symptoms in Parkinson's disease. Furthermore, due to the difficulty of clinical diagnosis of Parkinson's disease, it is often misdiagnosed, highlighting the need for better methods of detection. Treatment of Parkinson's disease is also complicated due to the difficulties of medications passing across the blood-brain barrier. Moreover, the conventional methods fail to solve the aforementioned issues. As a result, new methods are needed to detect and treat Parkinson's disease. Improved diagnosis and treatment of Parkinson's disease can help avoid some of its devastating symptoms. This review explores how nanotechnology platforms, such as nanobiosensors and nanomedicine, have improved Parkinson's disease detection and treatment. Nanobiosensors integrate science and engineering principles to detect Parkinson's disease. The main advantages are their low cost, portability, and quick and precise analysis. Moreover, nanotechnology can transport medications in the form of nanoparticles across the blood-brain barrier. However, because nanobiosensors are a novel technology, their use in biological systems is limited. Nanobiosensors have the potential to disrupt cell metabolism and homeostasis, changing cellular molecular profiles and making it difficult to distinguish sensor-induced artifacts from fundamental biological phenomena. In the treatment of Parkinson's disease, nanoparticles, on the other hand, produce neurotoxicity, which is a challenge in the treatment of Parkinson's disease. Techniques must be developed to distinguish sensor-induced artifacts from fundamental biological phenomena and to reduce the neurotoxicity caused by nanoparticles.

Green Spectrophotometric Platforms for Resolving Overlapped Spectral Signals of Recently Approved Antiparkinsonian Drug (Safinamide) in the Presence of Its Synthetic Precursor (4-Hydroxybenzaldehyde): Applying Ecological Appraisal and Comparative Statistical Studies

BACKGROUND

Safinamide, a highly specific inhibitor of monoamine oxidase B, is a new approved prodigious therapy used to cure Parkinson's disease (PD).

OBJECTIVE

Before marketing and selling a medicine, manufacturers must guarantee that the manufacturing process is consistent by monitoring levels of process-related chemicals and drug contaminants. Therefore, five precise, fast, and accurate spectrophotometric techniques were employed and evaluated for the simultaneous measurement of safinamide and its synthetic precursor, 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde.

METHODS

The first derivative, derivative ratio, ratio difference, dual wavelength, and Fourier self-deconvolution methods worked well to resolve spectral overlap of safinamide and its synthetic precursor, 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde.

RESULTS

Safinamide detection limits ranged from 0.598 to 1.315 µg/mL, whereas the 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde detection limit was found to be as low as 0.327 µg/mL.

CONCLUSION

According to International Council for Harmonisation (ICH) criteria, all procedures were verified and confirmed to be accurate, robust, repeatable, and precise within reasonable range. No considerable variation was found when comparing the outcomes of the suggested approaches to the findings of previously published methods. The ecological value of established methods was measured: the national environmental methods index (NEMI), the analytical eco-scale, the analytical greenness metric (AGREE), and the green analytical process index (GAPI) were used.

HIGHLIGHTS

This is the first spectrophotometric determination of safinamide drug in the presence of its synthetic precursor. Five simple and efficient spectrophotometric approaches were employed to determine a newly approved antiparkinsonian drug in the presence of its synthetic precursor simultaneously. Ecological appraisal was performed for the developed methods using four assessment tools.

Lipid Nanoparticles: Promising Treatment Approach for Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson’s disease (PD), a neurodegenerative disorder, is a life-altering, debilitating disease exhibiting a severe physical, psychological, and financial burden on patients. Globally, approximately 7–10 million people are afflicted with this disease, with the number of cases estimated to increase to 12.9 million by 2040. PD is a progressive movement disorder with nonmotor symptoms, including insomnia, depression, anxiety, and anosmia. While current therapeutics are available to PD patients, this treatment remains palliative, necessitating alternative treatment approaches. A major hurdle in treating PD is the protective nature of the blood–brain barrier (BBB) and its ability to limit access to foreign molecules, including therapeutics. Drugs utilized presently are nonspecific and administered at dosages that result in numerous adverse side effects. Nanomedicine has emerged as a potential strategy for treating many diseases. From the array of nanomaterials available, lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) possess various advantages, including enhanced permeability to the brain via passive diffusion and specific and nonspecific transporters. Their bioavailability, nontoxic nature, ability to be conjugated to drugs, and targeting moieties catapult LNPs as a promising therapeutic nanocarriers for PD. While PD-related studies are limited, their potential as therapeutics is evident in their formulations as vaccines. This review is aimed at examining the roles and properties of LNPs that make them efficient therapeutic nanodelivery vehicles for the treatment of PD, including therapeutic advances made to date.

Levodopa-Carbidopa Intestinal Gel in Advanced Parkinson’s Disease: Observations and Dilemmas after 10 Years of Real-Life Experience

Advanced Parkinson’s disease (APD) cannot be treated efficiently using the classical medications however, in recent decades invasive therapeutical methods were implemented and confirmed as effective. One of these methods makes it possible to continue the levodopa (LD) supplementation as a gel administered directly into the upper intestine. However, there are a number of unanswered questions regarding this method. Therefore, we retrospectively analyzed a 10-year period of selected patients that were treated with levodopa/carbidopa intestinal gel (LCIG). We included all APD patients with motor fluctuations and dyskinesia at presentation. LCIG treatment was started in 150 patients: on average these patients received LD for 10.6 ± 4.4 years with a frequency of 5.2 ± 1.0/day until the introduction of LCIG. The estimated and the real LCIG dose differed significantly (mean: 1309 ± 321 mg vs. 1877 ± 769 mg). The mean duration of LCIG administration was 19.8 ± 3.6 h, but in a number of 62 patients we had to administer it for 24 h, to maximize the therapeutic benefit. A carefully and individually adjusted LCIG treatment improves the quality of life of APD patients, but questions remain unresolved even after treating a large number of patients. It is important to share the ideas and observations based on the real-life experience related to the optimal timing, the appropriate dose and duration of administration of the LCIG.