The Effect of Ozone Treatment on the Physicochemical Properties and Biocompatibility of Electrospun Poly(ε)caprolactone Scaffolds

Polycaprolactone in Bone Tissue Engineering: A Comprehensive Review of Innovations in Scaffold Fabrication and Surface Modifications

Bone tissue engineering has seen significant advancements with innovative scaffold fabrication techniques such as 3D printing. This review focuses on enhancing polycaprolactone (PCL) scaffold properties through structural modifications, including surface treatments, pore architecture adjustments, and the incorporation of biomaterials like hydroxyapatite (HA). These modifications aim to improve scaffold conformation, cellular behavior, and mechanical performance, with particular emphasis on the role of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in bone regeneration. The review also explores the potential of integrating nanomaterials and graphene oxide (GO) to further enhance the mechanical and biological properties of PCL scaffolds. Future directions involve optimizing scaffold structures and compositions for improved bone tissue regeneration outcomes.

Ozone-treated poly-ε-caprolactone scaffolds for bone regeneration

The aim of this paper was the creation of porous 3D substrates and scaffolds of polycaprolactone (PCL) and the analysis of the effect of an ozone treatment on their performance, in collaboration with the Institute for Polymers, Composites and Biomaterials (IPCB) of the National Research Council (CNR). The nanoindentation tests showed that the substrates treated with ozone exhibit lower hardness values than the untreated ones, suggesting that the treatment carried out makes these substrates "softer". From the small punch tests carried out, very similar load-displacement curves were obtained for treated and untreated PCL substrates, characterized by an initial linear section, followed by a decrease in the slope until reaching a value maximum for the load and, finally, from a reduction of the load until failure. Tensile tests showed ductile behavior for both treated and untreated substrates. The results obtained showed that the treatment carried out with ozone does not significantly alter the values of the modulus (E) and of the maximum effort (σmax). Finally, preliminary biological analyzes carried out on substrates and 3D scaffolds using an appropriate assay (Alamar Blue Assay), useful for determining cellular metabolic activity, showed that ozone treatment appears to improve aspects relating to cell viability/proliferation.

Cartilage regeneration using improved surface electrospun bilayer polycaprolactone scaffolds loaded with transforming growth factor-beta 3 and rabbit muscle-derived stem cells

Polycaprolactone (PCL) has recently received significant attention due to its mechanical strength, low immunogenicity, elasticity, and biodegradability. Therefore, it is perfectly suitable for cartilage tissue engineering. PCL is relatively hydrophobic in nature, so its hydrophilicity needs to be enhanced before its use in scaffolding. In our study, first, we aimed to improve the hydrophilicity properties after the network of the bilayer scaffold was formed by electrospinning. Electrospun bilayer PCL scaffolds were treated with ozone and further loaded with transforming growth factor-beta 3 (TGFβ3). In vitro studies were performed to determine the rabbit muscle-derived stem cells’ (rMDSCs) potential to differentiate into chondrocytes after the cells were seeded onto the scaffolds. Statistically significant results indicated that ozonated (O) scaffolds create a better environment for rMDSCs because collagen-II (Coll2) concentrations at day 21 were higher than non-ozonated (NO) scaffolds. In in vivo studies, we aimed to determine the cartilage regeneration outcomes by macroscopical and microscopical/histological evaluations at 3- and 6-month time-points. The Oswestry Arthroscopy Score (OAS) was the highest at both mentioned time-points using the scaffold loaded with TGFβ3 and rMDSCs. Evaluation of cartilage electromechanical quantitative parameters (QPs) showed significantly better results in cell-treated scaffolds at both 3 and 6 months. Safranin O staining indicated similar results as in macroscopical evaluations—cell-treated scaffolds revealed greater staining with safranin, although an empty defect also showed better results than non-cell-treated scaffolds. The scaffold with chondrocytes represented the best score when the scaffolds were evaluated with the Mankin histological grading scale. However, as in previous in vivo evaluations, cell-treated scaffolds showed better results than non-cell-treated scaffolds. In conclusion, we have investigated that an ozone-treated scaffold containing TGFβ3 with rMDSC is a proper combination and could be a promising scaffold for cartilage regeneration.

Functionalized Electrospun Scaffold-Human-Muscle-Derived Stem Cell Construct Promotes In Vivo Neocartilage Formation

Polycaprolactone (PCL) is a non-cytotoxic, completely biodegradable biomaterial, ideal for cartilage tissue engineering. Despite drawbacks such as low hydrophilicity and lack of functional groups necessary for incorporating growth factors, it provides a proper environment for different cells, including stem cells. In our study, we aimed to improve properties of scaffolds for better cell adherence and cartilage regeneration. Thus, electrospun PCL–scaffolds were functionalized with ozone and loaded with TGF-β3. Together, human-muscle-derived stem cells (hMDSCs) were isolated and assessed for their phenotype and potential to differentiate into specific lineages. Then, hMDSCs were seeded on ozonated (O) and non-ozonated (“naïve” (NO)) scaffolds with or without protein and submitted for in vitro and in vivo experiments. In vitro studies showed that hMDSC and control cells (human chondrocyte) could be tracked for at least 14 days. We observed better proliferation of hMDSCs in O scaffolds compared to NO scaffolds from day 7 to day 28. Protein analysis revealed slightly higher expression of type II collagen (Coll2) on O scaffolds compared to NO on days 21 and 28. We detected more pronounced formation of glycosaminoglycans in the O scaffolds containing TGF-β3 and hMDSC compared to NO and scaffolds without TGF-β3 in in vivo animal experiments. Coll2-positive extracellular matrix was observed within O and NO scaffolds containing TGF-β3 and hMDSC for up to 8 weeks after implantation. These findings suggest that ozone-treated, TGF-β3-loaded scaffold with hMDSC is a promising tool in neocartilage formation.