Flaxseed and Camelina Meals as Potential Sources of Health-Beneficial Compounds

Effect of Sprouting on the Phenolic Compounds, Glucosinolates, and Antioxidant Activity of Five Camelina sativa (L.) Crantz Cultivars

Sprouts are increasingly present in the human diet, being tasty and healthy foods high in antioxidant compounds. Although there is a body of literature on the sprouting of many plant species, Camelina sativa (L.) Crantz has not yet been studied for this purpose. This study aimed to characterize the main bioactive compounds and antioxidant potential of seeds and sprouts of five different Camelina cultivars (ALBA, CO46, CCE43, JOELLE, and VERA). In particular, the contents of phenolic compounds (PCs), phenolic acids (PAs), and glucosinolates (GLSs) were investigated. PCs, PAs, GLSs, and the antioxidant activity of seeds differed among cultivars and were greatly increased by sprouting. A PCA analysis underlined both the effect of the cultivar (PC2) and the germination (PC1) on the nutritional properties of Camelina. The best nutritional properties of seeds were observed for ALBA and CCE43, while the best nutritional properties of sprouts were recorded for CCE43 and JOELLE, since the latter cultivar showed a greater enhancement in phytochemical content and antioxidant activity with sprouting. Finally, a UHPLC-UV procedure for the analysis of GLSs in Camelina was developed and validated. The performance criteria of the proposed method demonstrated that it is useful for the analysis of GLSs in Camelina.

Effect of Flaxseed Oil Cake Extract on the Microbial Quality, Texture and Shelf Life of Gluten-Free Bread

Extending the shelf life of gluten-free bread (GFB) is a challenge. Mainly due to the ingredients used and their characteristics, GFB has numerous drawbacks such as unsatisfactory texture and rapid staling beyond a low nutritional value. In the present study, flaxseed oil cake extract (FOCE) was used to replace water (25-100%) in GFB formulations in order to test FOCE's potential to reduce GFB staling and extend microbial stability. Texture (TPA test), water activity (LF NMR), acidity (pH measurements) and microbiological quality of GFBs were tested. Moreover, the content of a lignan with broad health-promoting potential, secoisolariciresinol diglucoside (SDG), in GFB with FOCE was analyzed. The results showed that the use of FOCE enriched experimental GFB in valuable SDG (217-525 µg/100 g DM) while not causing adverse microbiological changes. A moderate level (25-50%) of FOCE did not change the main texture parameters of GFB stored for 72 h, the quality of which was comparable to control bread without FOCE. Meanwhile, higher proportions of FOCE (75-100% of water replacement) shortened GFB shelf life as determined by water activity and texture profile, suggesting that GFB with FOCE should be consumed fresh. To summarize, FOCE at moderate levels can add value to GFBs without causing a drop in quality, while still fitting in with the idea of zero waste and the circular economy.

Genetic Improvement of Camelina sativa (L.) Crantz: Opportunities and Challenges

In recent years, a renewed interest in novel crops has been developing due to the environmental issues associated with the sustainability of agricultural practices. In particular, a cover crop, Camelina sativa (L.) Crantz, belonging to the Brassicaceae family, is attracting the scientific community's interest for several desirable features. It is related to the model species Arabidopsis thaliana, and its oil extracted from the seeds can be used either for food and feed, or for industrial uses such as biofuel production. From an agronomic point of view, it can grow in marginal lands with little or no inputs, and is practically resistant to the most important pathogens of Brassicaceae. Although cultivated in the past, particularly in northern Europe and Italy, in the last century, it was abandoned. For this reason, little breeding work has been conducted to improve this plant, also because of the low genetic variability present in this hexaploid species. In this review, we summarize the main works on this crop, focused on genetic improvement with three main objectives: yield, seed oil content and quality, and reduction in glucosinolates content in the seed, which are the main anti-nutritional substances present in camelina. We also report the latest advances in utilising classical plant breeding, transgenic approaches, and CRISPR-Cas9 genome-editing.

Effect of Flaxseed on TGF-Β, IL-6, and MMP9 Genes Expression during Wound Healing Process in Rabbits

BACKGROUND: Wound healing is a natural restorative response to tissue injury, and it involves regulated order of cellular and biochemical actions to reinstate tissue after injury, which involves resurfacing reconstitution, and restoration of tensile strength of injured skin. Normal and impaired wound healing post-significant problems related to healthcare and expenditure. Most of the chemical medications which widely used for wound healing might cause unwanted side effects with prolonged use such as hyper scarring, thus studies using natural products are now deemed important. Flaxseed is a natural product that enhances the immune system functioning against different diseases. Nevertheless, limited studies have been done looking into the response triggered by immune cells and the wound-healing-related genes with the use of flaxseed extract onto the wounded skin for the healing process. AIM: The main objective of this study is to analyze the expression of wound healing-related genes during different stages of the wound healing process induced by flaxseed in vivo. METHODS: The effect of flaxseed oil in the early stages (day 4 and 7) and late stages (day 14) of wound healing was explored on New Zealand white rabbits by creating a longitudinal full thickness wound on their back. The gene expression profiles of transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β), IL-6, and metalloproteinase (MMP9) genes which have roles in wound healing through inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling were studied by polymerase chain reaction method. RESULTS: Flaxseed extract has significant effects in up-regulating anti-inflammatory marker TGF-β in wounds. Flaxseed oil also reduces the expression level of MMP9 on day 14 of wound healing. CONCLUSIONS: This suggests that flaxseed extract has the potential to promote wound healing through the regulation of TGF-β and MMP9 in vivo.

Valorization of camelina oil to biobased materials and biofuels for new industrial uses: a review

Global environmental pollution is a growing concern, especially the release of carbon dioxide from the use of petroleum derived materials which negatively impacts our environment's natural greenhouse gas level. Extensive efforts have been made to explore the conversion of renewable raw materials (vegetable oils) into bio-based products with similar or enhanced properties to those derived from petroleum. However, these edible plant oils, commonly used for human food consumption, are often not suitable raw materials for industrial applications. Hence, there is an increasing interest in exploring the use of non-edible plant oils for industrial applications. One such emerging oil seed crop is Camelina sativa, generally known as camelina, which has limited use as a food oil and so is currently being explored as a feedstock for various industrial applications in both Europe and North America. Camelina oil is highly unsaturated, making it an ideal potential AGH feedstock for the manufacture of lower carbon footprint, biobased products that reduce our dependency on petroleum resources and thus help to combat climate change. This review presents a brief description of camelina highlighting its composition and its production in comparison with traditional plant oils. The main focus is to summarize recent data on valorization of camelina oil by various chemical means, with specific emphasis on their industrial applications in biofuels, adhesives and coatings, biopolymers and bio-composites, alkyd resins, cosmetics, and agriculture. The review concludes with a discussion on current challenges and future opportunities of camelina oil valorization into various industrial products.

An Analysis of Variability in the Content of Phenolic Acids and Flavonoids in Camelina Seeds Depending on Weather Conditions, Functional Form, and Genotypes

Camelina oil obtained from the seeds of Camelina sativa exhibits strong antioxidative properties. This study was based on four years of field experiments conducted on 63 genotypes of spring and 11 genotypes of winter camelina. The aim of the study was to determine the variability in the content of the selected bioactive compounds, depending on the weather conditions during the cultivation, the functional form, and genotype. The cultivation form of the genotypes analysed in our study did not exhibit significant differences in the quantitative profiles of the tested phenolic acids and flavonoids. Sinapic acid was the most abundant of all phenolic acids under analysis (617–668 mg/kg), while quercetin was the main flavonoid (91–161 mg/kg). Camelina has great potential not only for the food industry but also for researchers attempting to breed an oil plant with the stable biosynthesis of bioactive compounds to ensure oxidative protection of obtained fat.

The effect of camelina oil on vascular function in essential hypertensive patients with metabolic syndrome: a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study

BACKGROUND

The effects of a dietary supplementation with the vegetable ω-3 α-linolenic acid (ALA) on cardiovascular homeostasis are unclear. In this context, it would be interesting to assess the effects of camelina oil.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to assess the cardiovascular and metabolic effects of camelina oil in hypertensive patients with metabolic syndrome.

METHODS

In a double-blind, placebo-controlled randomized study, treated essential hypertensive patients with metabolic syndrome received, during 6 mo, either cyclodextrin-complexed camelina oil containing ≈ 1.5 g ALA/d (n = 40) or an isocaloric placebo (n = 41), consisting of the same quantity of cyclodextrins and wheat starch. Anthropometric data, plasma lipids, glycemia, insulinemia, creatininemia, TBARs, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, and n-3, n-6, and n-9 fatty acids in erythrocyte membranes were measured. Peripheral and central blood pressures, arterial stiffness, carotid intima-media thickness, and brachial artery endothelium-dependent flow-mediated dilatation (FMD) and endothelium-independent dilatation were assessed.

RESULTS

Compared with placebo, camelina oil increased ALA (mean ± SD: 0 ± 0.04 compared with 0.08 ± 0.06%, P <0.001), its elongation product EPA (0 ± 0.5 compared with 0.16 ± 0.65%, P <0.05), and the n-9 gondoic acid (GA; 0 ± 0.04 compared with 0.08 ± 0.04%, P <0.001). No between-group difference was observed for cardiovascular parameters. However, changes in FMD were associated with the magnitude of changes in EPA (r = 0.26, P = 0.03). Compared with placebo, camelina oil increased fasting glycemia (-0.2 ± 0.6 compared with 0.3 ± 0.5 mmol/L, P <0.001) and HOMA-IR index (-0.8 ± 2.5 compared with 0.5 ± 0.9, P <0.01), without affecting plasma lipids, or inflammatory and oxidative stress markers. Changes in HOMA-IR index were correlated with the magnitude of changes in GA (r = 0.32, P <0.01). Nutritional intake remained similar between groups.

CONCLUSION

ALA supplementation with camelina oil did not improve vascular function but adversely affected glucose metabolism in hypertensive patients with metabolic syndrome. Whether this adverse effect on insulin sensitivity is related to GA enrichment, remains to be elucidated.

Can Light Spectrum Composition Increase Growth and Nutritional Quality of Linum usitatissimum L. Sprouts and Microgreens?

Flaxseed could be suitable for obtaining high-quality sprouts and microgreens thanks to high amounts of nutrients and antioxidant, antidiabetic, and anticancer compound content in its seeds. Recent studies highlighted that seedling growth, nutritional compound, and secondary metabolite content can be strongly managed by regulation of the light spectrum used during germination. The present study intended to shed light on flaxseed as emerging and novel species for sprouts and microgreens and to evaluate the effect of light, with different spectrum compositions (100% blue, 100% red, 100% green, and red:green:blue—1:1:1) on the performance of flax microgreens and sprouts grown indoors under controlled conditions. Microgreens showed, compared to sprouts, a higher chlorophyll (+62.6%), carotenoid (+24.4%), and phenol content (+37.8%), antioxidant capacity (+25.1%) and a lower dry matter content (−30.7%). Besides, microgreens treated with 100% blue light were characterized by the highest content of flavonoids (2.48 mg CAE g−1 FW), total phenols (3.76 mg GAE g−1 FW), chlorogenic acid (1.10 mg g−1 FW), and antioxidant capacity (8.06 µmol TEAC g−1 FW). The paper demonstrates the feasibility of obtaining flax sprouts and microgreens indoors with a considerable antioxidant capacity and health-promoting compounds by modulating the light spectrum.

Production and Characterization of Yogurt-Like Fermented Beverage Based on Camelina (Camelina sativa L.) Seed Press Cake

Plant-based fermented beverages are growing in popularity due to the rise in vegetarianism, health trends and ethical concerns. In this study, camelina (Camelina sativa L.) seed press cake (CPC, 15% and 20% w/w) was fermented using yogurt starter culture. The physicochemical properties of the samples, including pH, total acidity, color, viscosity, texture and rheological properties were investigated. Moreover, the lactic acid bacteria (LAB) viability, bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity were determined. During fermentation and 28-day refrigerated storage, the samples achieved a mean viable bacterial count of at least 1010 CFU/g, which is higher than the recommended bacteria level for traditional dairy yogurt (106 CFU/g). A significant acidification, consumption of reducing sugars, increase in free amino acids and polyphenolics was observed. In addition, CPC-based fermented samples showed good antioxidant potential. Textural and rheological characteristics were similar to dairy yogurt. Moreover, fermentation improved the sensory attributes of CPC, meeting consumers’ acceptance criteria. Thus, the study indicated that fermentation had a marked effect on the physicochemical, microbiological and functional properties of CPC. Therefore, the fermented CPC-based beverage has the potential to be a valid, value-added and novel alternative to dairy-based yogurt.

Dietary Supplementation with Camelina sativa (L. Crantz) Forage in Autochthonous Ionica Goats: Effects on Milk and Caciotta Cheese Chemical, Fatty Acid Composition and Sensory Properties

The research studied the effects of dietary supplementation with Camelina sativa fresh forage on the chemical and fatty acid composition of milk and Caciotta cheese, and its sensory properties. Twenty Ionica goats were randomly assigned to the following two groups (n = 10): the control received a traditional forage mixture (Avena sativa, 70%; Vicia sativa, 20%; Trifolium spp., 10%), while the experimental group was given Camelina sativa fresh forage (CAM). All of the dams grazed on pasture and received a commercial feed (500 g/head/day) at housing. The milk from the CAM group showed a higher (p < 0.05) content of dry matter, fat, lactose and concentrations of C6:0, C11:0, C14:0, C18:2 n-6, CLA and PUFA, while lower (p < 0.05) amounts of C12:0, C18:0 and saturated long chain FA (SLCFA). The Caciotta cheese from the CAM group showed a greater (p < 0.05) content of n-6 FA and n-6/n-3 ratio, although close to four, thus resulting adequate under the nutritional point of view. The overall liking, odour, taste, hardness, solubility and "goaty" flavour were better (p < 0.05) in the CAM cheeses. Further investigation would be advisable in order to evaluate the effect of feeding Camelina forage obtained from different phenological stages, and the application of ensiling techniques.