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Yang J, Ye Y, Yi R, Bi D, Zhang S, Han S, Kan X. A new perspective on codon usage, selective pressure, and phylogenetic implications of the plastomes in the Telephium clade (Crassulaceae). Gene 2024; 892:147871. [PMID: 37797779 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2023.147871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2023] [Revised: 09/13/2023] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 10/07/2023]
Abstract
The Telephium clade of the Crassulaceae family contains many medicinal, ornamental, and ecologically restorative plants. However, the phylogenetic relationships within the clade remain debated, and comprehensive analyses of codon usage and selection pressure in Telephium plastomes are limited. In this study, we assembled and annotated four plastomes and performed extensive analyses. The plastomes exhibited a typical quadripartite structure and high conservation. The lengths ranged from 151,357 bp to 151,641 bp with 134 genes identified. The GC content was the highest within IR, followed by LSC, and lowest in the SSC region. Meanwhile, a unique inversion was observed within the LSC region of Meterostachys sikokianus. Polymorphisms analysis revealed minimum nucleotide diversity in the IR regions, with over ten highly polymorphic regions identified. Phylogenetically, two subclades formed within the monophyletic Telephium clade, with Umbilicus as the sister group to the remaining Hylotelephium subclade members. Notably, no significant positive selection was found among the 79 plastid genes, which showed varying evolutionary patterns. However, 19 genes contained codons under positive selection. The specific functions of these sites require further investigation. Synonymous codon usage was biased and conserved across the tested plastomes, shaped by natural selection, mutations and other factors of varying influence. We also identified 34 taxon-specific codon aversion motifs from 49 plastid genes. Our plastomic analyses elucidate phylogenetic relationships and evolutionary patterns in this medicinal clade, providing a foundation for further research on these ecologically and pharmaceutically important plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianke Yang
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of the Conservation and Exploitation of Biological Resources, College of Life Sciences, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, Anhui, China; School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wannan Medical College, Wuhu, Anhui, China
| | - Yuanxin Ye
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of the Conservation and Exploitation of Biological Resources, College of Life Sciences, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, Anhui, China
| | - Ran Yi
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of the Conservation and Exploitation of Biological Resources, College of Life Sciences, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, Anhui, China
| | - De Bi
- College of Landscape Engineering, Suzhou Polytechnic Institute of Agriculture, Suzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Sijia Zhang
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of the Conservation and Exploitation of Biological Resources, College of Life Sciences, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, Anhui, China
| | - Shiyun Han
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of the Conservation and Exploitation of Biological Resources, College of Life Sciences, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, Anhui, China
| | - Xianzhao Kan
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of the Conservation and Exploitation of Biological Resources, College of Life Sciences, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, Anhui, China; The Institute of Bioinformatics, College of Life Sciences, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, Anhui, China.
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Kim TH, Ha YH, Kim SC, Kim HJ. Characterization of the complete plastid genome and phylogenetic implication of Micranthes octopetala (Nakai) Y.I.Kim & Y.D.Kim (Saxifragaceae), endemic to Korea. Mitochondrial DNA B Resour 2023; 8:967-972. [PMID: 37711547 PMCID: PMC10498808 DOI: 10.1080/23802359.2023.2256051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 08/31/2023] [Indexed: 09/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Micranthes octopetala (Nakai) Y.I.Kim & Y.D. Kim et al. 2015, which belongs to the family Saxifragaceae, is a perennial herb endemic to Korea. M. octopetala was originally treated as a synonym of M. manchuriensis. However, in 2015, molecular phylogenetic analysis confirmed that M. octopetala is an independent species. In this study, the plastid genome of M. octopetala was sequenced for the first time, and the taxonomic position of this species was identified. The complete plastid genome of M. octopetala has a total length of 149 751 bp (large single copy: 83 083 bp; small single copy: 17 196 bp; inverted repeat: 24 736 bp), containing 130 genes, including 79 CDS, 30 tRNAs, and 4 rRNAs. Moreover, the absence of intron in the rpl2 gene, which is a common feature of Saxifragaceae, was confirmed. Phylogenetic analysis based on 79 protein-coding genes from 21 species revealed that M. octopetala belongs to the genus Micranthes, being a sister to other Micranthes species. The plastid genome of M. octopetala obtained in this study provides fundamental information for future studies on the genus Micranthes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tae-Hee Kim
- Division of Forest Biodiversity, Korea National Arboretum, Pocheon-Si, Republic of Korea
| | - Young-Ho Ha
- Division of Forest Biodiversity, Korea National Arboretum, Pocheon-Si, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang-Chul Kim
- Division of Forest Biodiversity, Korea National Arboretum, Pocheon-Si, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyuk-Jin Kim
- Division of Forest Biodiversity, Korea National Arboretum, Pocheon-Si, Republic of Korea
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Deng Z, Huang K, Xie P, Xie S, Zhang N, Yin H, Ping M, Wang Y. The complete chloroplast genome sequence of Sedum bulbiferum (Crassulaceae). Mitochondrial DNA B Resour 2023; 8:598-602. [PMID: 37250209 PMCID: PMC10210845 DOI: 10.1080/23802359.2022.2160220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 05/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Sedum bulbiferum is a traditional medicinal plant in China, with few reports on its chloroplast genome. In this study, the chloroplast genome of Sedum bulbiferum was characterized, and its phylogenetic position among other closely related species was studied. The results showed that the full length of the chloroplast genome was 150,074 bp, containing a large single-copy (LSC) region and a small single-copy (SSC) region of 81,730 and 16,726 bp, respectively, as well as two inverted repeat regions (IRs) of 25,809 bp like other plants. A total of 128 genes were found, including 83 protein-coding genes, 37 tRNA genes, and eight rRNA genes. Phylogenetic analysis showed that Sedum bulbiferum is closely related to Sedum emarginatum, Sedum alfredii, Sedum tricarpum, Sedum plumbizincicola, and Sedum sarmentosum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zijie Deng
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Molecular Immunity Technology of Aquatic Animal Diseases, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hunan University of Arts and Science, Changde, China
| | - Kerui Huang
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Molecular Immunity Technology of Aquatic Animal Diseases, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hunan University of Arts and Science, Changde, China
| | - Peng Xie
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Molecular Immunity Technology of Aquatic Animal Diseases, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hunan University of Arts and Science, Changde, China
| | - Suisui Xie
- The First High School of Changsha, China
| | - Ningyun Zhang
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Molecular Immunity Technology of Aquatic Animal Diseases, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hunan University of Arts and Science, Changde, China
| | - Hanbin Yin
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Molecular Immunity Technology of Aquatic Animal Diseases, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hunan University of Arts and Science, Changde, China
| | - Mo Ping
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Molecular Immunity Technology of Aquatic Animal Diseases, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hunan University of Arts and Science, Changde, China
| | - Yun Wang
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Molecular Immunity Technology of Aquatic Animal Diseases, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hunan University of Arts and Science, Changde, China
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Bi D, Han S, Zhou J, Zhao M, Zhang S, Kan X. Codon Usage Analyses Reveal the Evolutionary Patterns among Plastid Genes of Saxifragales at a Larger-Sampling Scale. Genes (Basel) 2023; 14:genes14030694. [PMID: 36980966 PMCID: PMC10048229 DOI: 10.3390/genes14030694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Revised: 03/07/2023] [Accepted: 03/10/2023] [Indexed: 03/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Saxifragales is a 15-family order of early-divergent Eudicots with a rich morphological diversity and an ancient rapid radiation. Codon usage bias (CUB) analyses have emerged as an essential tool for understanding the evolutionary dynamics in genes. Thus far, the codon utilization patterns had only been reported in four separate genera within Saxifragales. This study provides a comprehensive assessment of the codon manipulation based on 50 plastid genes, covering 11 constituent families at a larger sampling scale. Our results first showed a high preference for AT bases and AT-ending codons. We then used effective number of codons (ENC) to assess a range of codon bias levels in the plastid genes. We also detected high-informative intrafamilial differences of ENC in three families. Subsequently, parity rule 2 (PR2) plot analyses revealed both family-unique and order-shared bias patterns. Most importantly, the ENC plots and neutrality analyses collectively supported the dominant roles of selection in the CUB of Saxifragales plastid genes. Notably, the phylogenetic affinities inferred by both ML and BI methods were consistent with each other, and they all comprised two primary clades and four subclades. These findings significantly enhance our understanding of the evolutionary processes of the Saxifrage order, and could potentially inspire more CUB analyses at higher taxonomic levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- De Bi
- Suzhou Polytechnic Institute of Agriculture, Suzhou 215000, China
| | - Shiyun Han
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of the Conservation and Exploitation of Biological Resources, College of Life Sciences, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu 241000, China
- The Institute of Bioinformatics, College of Life Sciences, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu 241000, China
| | - Jun Zhou
- Suzhou Polytechnic Institute of Agriculture, Suzhou 215000, China
| | - Maojin Zhao
- Suzhou Polytechnic Institute of Agriculture, Suzhou 215000, China
| | - Sijia Zhang
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of the Conservation and Exploitation of Biological Resources, College of Life Sciences, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu 241000, China
- The Institute of Bioinformatics, College of Life Sciences, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu 241000, China
| | - Xianzhao Kan
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of the Conservation and Exploitation of Biological Resources, College of Life Sciences, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu 241000, China
- The Institute of Bioinformatics, College of Life Sciences, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu 241000, China
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-139-5537-2268
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Han S, Ding H, Bi D, Zhang S, Yi R, Gao J, Yang J, Ye Y, Wu L, Kan X. Structural Diversities and Phylogenetic Signals in Plastomes of the Early-Divergent Angiosperms: A Case Study in Saxifragales. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 11:3544. [PMID: 36559654 PMCID: PMC9787361 DOI: 10.3390/plants11243544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2022] [Revised: 12/13/2022] [Accepted: 12/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
As representative of the early-divergent groups of angiosperms, Saxifragales is extremely divergent in morphology, comprising 15 families. Within this order, our previous case studies observed significant structural diversities among the plastomes of several lineages, suggesting a possible role in elucidating their deep phylogenetic relationships. Here, we collected 208 available plastomes from 11 constituent families to explore the evolutionary patterns among Saxifragales. With thorough comparisons, the losses of two genes and three introns were found in several groups. Notably, 432 indel events have been observed from the introns of all 17 plastomic intron-containing genes, which could well play an important role in family barcoding. Moreover, numerous heterogeneities and strong intrafamilial phylogenetic implications were revealed in pttRNA (plastomic tRNA) structures, and the unique structural patterns were also determined for five families. Most importantly, based on the well-supported phylogenetic trees, evident phylogenetic signals were detected in combinations with the identified pttRNAs features and intron indels, demonstrating abundant lineage-specific characteristics for Saxifragales. Collectively, the results reported here could not only provide a deeper understanding into the evolutionary patterns of Saxifragales, but also provide a case study for exploring the plastome evolution at a high taxonomic level of angiosperms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiyun Han
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of the Conservation and Exploitation of Biological Resources, College of Life Sciences, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu 241000, China
| | - Hengwu Ding
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of the Conservation and Exploitation of Biological Resources, College of Life Sciences, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu 241000, China
| | - De Bi
- College of Landscape Engineering, Suzhou Polytechnic Institute of Agriculture, Suzhou 215000, China
| | - Sijia Zhang
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of the Conservation and Exploitation of Biological Resources, College of Life Sciences, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu 241000, China
| | - Ran Yi
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of the Conservation and Exploitation of Biological Resources, College of Life Sciences, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu 241000, China
| | - Jinming Gao
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of the Conservation and Exploitation of Biological Resources, College of Life Sciences, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu 241000, China
| | - Jianke Yang
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of the Conservation and Exploitation of Biological Resources, College of Life Sciences, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu 241000, China
| | - Yuanxin Ye
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of the Conservation and Exploitation of Biological Resources, College of Life Sciences, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu 241000, China
| | - Longhua Wu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Soil Environment and Pollution Remediation, Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Xianzhao Kan
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of the Conservation and Exploitation of Biological Resources, College of Life Sciences, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu 241000, China
- The Institute of Bioinformatics, College of Life Sciences, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu 241000, China
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Ten Plastomes of Crassula (Crassulaceae) and Phylogenetic Implications. BIOLOGY 2022; 11:biology11121779. [PMID: 36552287 PMCID: PMC9775174 DOI: 10.3390/biology11121779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2022] [Revised: 12/05/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The genus Crassula is the second-largest genus in the family Crassulaceae, with about 200 species. As an acknowledged super-barcode, plastomes have been extensively utilized for plant evolutionary studies. Here, we first report 10 new plastomes of Crassula. We further focused on the structural characterizations, codon usage, aversion patterns, and evolutionary rates of plastomes. The IR junction patterns-IRb had 110 bp expansion to rps19-were conservative among Crassula species. Interestingly, we found the codon usage patterns of matK gene in Crassula species are unique among Crassulaceae species with elevated ENC values. Furthermore, subgenus Crassula species have specific GC-biases in the matK gene. In addition, the codon aversion motifs from matK, pafI, and rpl22 contained phylogenetic implications within Crassula. The evolutionary rates analyses indicated all plastid genes of Crassulaceae were under the purifying selection. Among plastid genes, ycf1 and ycf2 were the most rapidly evolving genes, whereas psaC was the most conserved gene. Additionally, our phylogenetic analyses strongly supported that Crassula is sister to all other Crassulaceae species. Our findings will be useful for further evolutionary studies within the Crassula and Crassulaceae.
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Han S, Bi D, Yi R, Ding H, Wu L, Kan X. Plastome evolution of Aeonium and Monanthes (Crassulaceae): insights into the variation of plastomic tRNAs, and the patterns of codon usage and aversion. PLANTA 2022; 256:35. [PMID: 35809200 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-022-03950-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2022] [Accepted: 06/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
This study reported 13 new plastomes from Aeonium and Monanthes, and observed new markers for phylogeny and DNA barcoding, such as novel tRNA structures and codon usage bias and aversion. The Macaronesian clade of Crassulaceae consists of three genera: Aichryson, with about 15 species; Monanthes, with about 10 species; Aeonium, with about 40 species. Within this clade, Aeonium, known as "the botanical equivalent of Darwin's finches", is regarded as an excellent model plant for researching adaptive evolution. Differing from the well-resolved relationships among three genera of the Macaronesian clade, the internal branching patterns within the genus Aeonium are largely unclear. In this study, we first reported 13 new plastomes from genus Aeonium and the closely related genus Monanthes. We further performed comprehensive analyses of the plastomes, with focuses on the secondary structures of pttRNAs and the patterns of codon usage and aversion. With a typical circular and quadripartite structure, the 13 plastomes ranged from 149,900 to 151,030 bp in size, and the unique pattern in IR junctions might become a family-specific marker for Crassulaceae species. Surprisingly, the π values of plastomes from Monanthes were almost twice those from Aeonium. Most importantly, we strongly recommend that highly polymorphic regions, novel putative pttRNA structures, patterns of codon usage bias and aversion derived from plastomes might have phylogenetic implications, and could act as new markers for DNA barcoding of plants. The results of phylogenetic analyses strongly supported a clear internal branching pattern in Macaronesian clade (represented by Aeonium and Monanthes), with higher nodal support values. The findings reported here will provide new insights into the variation of pttRNAs, and the patterns of codon usage and aversion of the family Crassulaceae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiyun Han
- The Institute of Bioinformatics, College of Life Sciences, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, 241000, Anhui, China
| | - De Bi
- Suzhou Polytechnic Institute of Agriculture, Suzhou, 215000, Jiangsu, China
| | - Ran Yi
- The Institute of Bioinformatics, College of Life Sciences, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, 241000, Anhui, China
| | - Hengwu Ding
- The Institute of Bioinformatics, College of Life Sciences, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, 241000, Anhui, China
| | - Longhua Wu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Soil Environment and Pollution Remediation, Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing, 210008, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xianzhao Kan
- The Institute of Bioinformatics, College of Life Sciences, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, 241000, Anhui, China.
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of the Conservation and Exploitation of Biological Resources, Wuhu, 241000, Anhui, China.
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Shin JA, Won DH, Swarup N, Ahn MH, Yang SO, Chawla K, Kim J, Choi SJ, Ahn CH, Oh KY, Yoon HJ, Lee JI, Hong SD, Hong KO, Cho SD. Methanol extract of Sedum oryzifolium and its constituent, trehalose, impede the invasiveness of oral squamous cell carcinoma cell lines via downregulation of Slug. PHYTOMEDICINE : INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOTHERAPY AND PHYTOPHARMACOLOGY 2021; 91:153670. [PMID: 34391081 DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2021.153670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Revised: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sedum species are reported to possess diverse pharmacological activities in various solid tumors. However, the anticancer functions of Sedum orizyfolium and its constituents have never been determined in human cancers. PURPOSE The present study focused on addressing the inhibition efficacy of the methanol extract of S. orizyfolium (MESO) and its constituents and the molecular mechanism underlying invasion and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) cell lines. STUDY DESIGN/METHODS After MESO treatment, a wound-healing assay, an invasion assay, and immunocytochemistry were performed in OSCC cell lines, coupled with in silico analysis and immunohistochemistry in OSCC patient samples, to investigate the role of the EMT transcription factor Slug. Trehalose, an active component of MESO, was identified through gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. RESULTS Among the methanol extracts of 18 various wild plants from South Korea, MESO exhibited the highest anticancer functionality in OSCC cells by downregulating Slug expression. In silico analysis and immunohistochemistry indicated that elevated Slug levels are remarkably associated with tumor progression and invasion in patients with OSCC, suggesting that changes in Slug expression alter EMT progression and invasion in OSCC. Notably, treatment with trehalose, a sugar component of MESO, inhibited invasiveness and Slug expression in OSCC cells. CONCLUSION Cumulatively, this study highlighted the beneficial role of MESO and trehalose in the inhibition of invasiveness of OSCC cells via suppression of Slug expression and suggested a new design for potential chemotherapeutic drugs against OSCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Ae Shin
- Department of Oral Pathology, School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong-Hoon Won
- Department of Biotechnology, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon, 14662, Republic of Korea
| | - Neeti Swarup
- Department of Oral Pathology, School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea
| | - Min-Hye Ahn
- Department of Oral Pathology, School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung-Ok Yang
- National Instrumentation Center for Environmental Management, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Kunal Chawla
- Department of Computer Science, School of Interactive Computing, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, USA
| | - Jihoon Kim
- Department of Oral Pathology, School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea
| | - Su-Jung Choi
- Department of Oral Pathology, School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea
| | - Chi-Hyun Ahn
- Department of Oral Pathology, School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyu-Young Oh
- Department of Oral Pathology, School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea
| | - Hye-Jung Yoon
- Department of Oral Pathology, School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae-Il Lee
- Department of Oral Pathology, School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea
| | - Seong-Doo Hong
- Department of Oral Pathology, School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyoung-Ok Hong
- Department of Oral Pathology, School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea.
| | - Sung-Dae Cho
- Department of Oral Pathology, School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea.
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