Application of PEG-Covered Non-Biodegradable Polyelectrolyte Microcapsules in the Crustacean Circulatory System on the Example of the Amphipod Eulimnogammarus verrucosus

Leeches Baicalobdella torquata feed on hemolymph but have a low effect on the cellular immune response of amphipod Eulimnogammarus verrucosus from Lake Baikal

Lake Baikal is one of the largest and oldest freshwater reservoirs on the planet with a huge endemic diversity of amphipods (Amphipoda, Crustacea). These crustaceans have various symbiotic relationships, including the rarely described phenomenon of leech parasitism on amphipods. It is known that leeches feeding on hemolymph of crustacean hosts can influence their physiology, especially under stressful conditions. Here we show that leeches Baicalobdella torquata (Grube, 1871) found on gills of Eulimnogammarus verrucosus (Gerstfeldt, 1858), one of the most abundant amphipods in the Baikal littoral zone, indeed feed on the hemolymph of their host. However, the leech infection had no effect on immune parameters such as hemocyte concentration or phenoloxidase activity and also did not affect glycogen content. The intensity of hemocyte reaction to foreign bodies in a primary culture was identical between leech-free and leech-infected animals. Artificial infection with leeches also had only a subtle effect on the course of a model microbial infection in terms of hemocyte concentration and composition. Despite we cannot fully exclude deleterious effects of the parasites, our study indicates a low influence of a few leeches on E. verrucosus and shows that leech-infected amphipods can be used at least for some types of ecophysiological experiments.

Experimental Crossing Confirms Reproductive Isolation between Cryptic Species within Eulimnogammarus verrucosus (Crustacea: Amphipoda) from Lake Baikal

Ancient lakes are known speciation hotspots. One of the most speciose groups in the ancient Lake Baikal are gammaroid amphipods (Crustacea: Amphipoda: Gammaroidea). There are over 350 morphological species and subspecies of amphipods in Baikal, but the extent of cryptic variation is still unclear. One of the most common species in the littoral zone of the lake, Eulimnogammarus verrucosus (Gerstfeldt, 1858), was recently found to comprise at least three (pseudo)cryptic species based on molecular data. Here, we further explored these species by analyzing their mitogenome-based phylogeny, genome sizes with flow cytometry, and their reproductive compatibility. We found divergent times of millions of years and different genome sizes in the three species (6.1, 6.9 and 8 pg), further confirming their genetic separation. Experimental crossing of the western and southern species, which are morphologically indistinguishable and have adjacent ranges, showed their separation with a post-zygotic reproductive barrier, as hybrid embryos stopped developing roughly at the onset of gastrulation. Thus, the previously applied barcoding approach effectively indicated the separate biological species within E. verrucosus. These results provide new data for investigating genome evolution and highlight the need for precise tracking of the sample origin in any studies in this morphospecies.

Fluorescent Polymers Conspectus

The development of luminescent materials is critical to humankind. The Nobel Prizes awarded in 2008 and 2010 for research on the development of green fluorescent proteins and super-resolved fluorescence imaging are proof of this (2014). Fluorescent probes, smart polymer machines, fluorescent chemosensors, fluorescence molecular thermometers, fluorescent imaging, drug delivery carriers, and other applications make fluorescent polymers (FPs) exciting materials. Two major branches can be distinguished in the field: (1) macromolecules with fluorophores in their structure and (2) aggregation-induced emission (AIE) FPs. In the first, the polymer (which may be conjugated) contains a fluorophore, conferring photoluminescent properties to the final material, offering tunable structures, robust mechanical properties, and low detection limits in sensing applications when compared to small-molecule or inorganic luminescent materials. In the latter, AIE FPs use a novel mode of fluorescence dependent on the aggregation state. AIE FP intra- and intermolecular interactions confer synergistic effects, improving their properties and performance over small molecules aggregation-induced, emission-based fluorescent materials (AIEgens). Despite their outstanding advantages (over classic polymers) of high emission efficiency, signal amplification, good processability, and multiple functionalization, AIE polymers have received less attention. This review examines some of the most significant advances in the broad field of FPs over the last six years, concluding with a general outlook and discussion of future challenges to promote advancements in these promising materials that can serve as a springboard for future innovation in the field.

Cellular Immune Response of an Endemic Lake Baikal Amphipod to Indigenous Pseudomonas sp

Studies of invertebrates have shown that the internal environment of crustaceans is not always sterile in normal conditions, and in many species, it can be populated by microorganisms even in the absence of any visible pathological processes in the body. This observation raises the question of whether genetically modified indigenous hemolymph microorganisms can be used for biotechnological purposes inside the crustacean either as local producers of some compounds or as sensors to physiological parameters. In this study, we tested the ability of the bacteria isolated from the hemolymph of the amphipod Eulimnogammarus verrucosus to hide from the cellular immune response of the host as the most important feature for their potential long-term application in vivo. 16S rDNA amplicon sequencing revealed five common bacterial genera in all analyzed samples of the amphipod hemolymph, among which Pseudomonas is most easily subjected to genome modification and, thus, the most prospective for biotechnological application. Cultivation of Pseudomonas gave us a number of strains undoubtedly derived from the amphipod hemolymph, and one of them (belonging to the Pseudomonas fluorescens group) was chosen for further tests. The primary culture of amphipod hemocytes was used to analyze the immunogenicity of the strain and showed a pronounced reaction of the immune cells to a high amount of the bacteria within six hours. This result indicates that modulation of cellular immune response to metabolically active bacterial cells is not mandatory for the survival and wide distribution of these microorganisms in the hemolymph of numerous amphipod individuals.

Histopathological analysis of zebrafish after introduction of non-biodegradable polyelectrolyte microcapsules into the circulatory system

Polyelectrolyte microcapsules are among the most promising carriers of various sensing substances for their application inside the bloodstream of vertebrates. The long-term effects of biodegradable microcapsules in mammals are relatively well studied, but this is not the case for non-biodegradable microcapsules, which may be even more generally applicable for physiological measurements. In the current study, we introduced non-biodegradable polyelectrolyte microcapsules coated with polyethylene glycol (PMs-PEG) into the circulatory system of zebrafish to assess their long-term effects on fish internal organs with histopathologic analysis. Implantation of PMs-PEG was not associated with the formation of microclots or thrombi in thin capillaries; thus, the applied microcapsules had a low aggregation capacity. The progression of the immune response to the implant depended on the time and the abundance of microparticles in the tissues. We showed that inflammation originated from recognition and internalization of PMs-PEG by phagocytes. These microcapsule-filled immune cells have been found to migrate through the intestinal wall into the lumen, demonstrating a possible mechanism for partial microparticle elimination from fish. The observed tissue immune response to PMs-PEG was local, without a systemic effect on the fish morphology. The most pronounced chronic severe inflammatory reaction was observed near the injection site in renal parenchyma and within the abdominal cavity since PMs-PEG were administered with kidney injection. Blood clots and granulomatosis were noted at the injection site but were not found in the kidneys outside the injection site. Single microcapsules brought by blood into distal organs did not have a noticeable effect on the surrounding tissues. The severity of noted pathologies of the gills was insufficient to affect respiration. No statistically significant alterations in hepatic morphology were revealed after PMs-PEG introduction into fish body. Overall, our data demonstrate that despite they are immunogenic, non-biodegradable PMs-PEG have low potential to cause systemic effects if applied in the minimal amount necessary for detection of fluorescent signal from the microcapsules.

The level of putative carotenoid-binding proteins determines the body color in two species of endemic Lake Baikal amphipods

Color is an essential clue for intra- and interspecies communication, playing a role in selection and speciation. Coloration can be based on nanostructures and pigments; carotenoids and carotenoproteins are among the most widespread pigments in animals. Over 350 species and subspecies of amphipods (Crustacea: Amphipoda) endemic to Lake Baikal exhibit an impressive variability of colors and coloration patterns, including intraspecific color morphs. However, the mechanisms forming this diversity are underexplored, as while the carotenoid composition of several transparent, green, and red species was investigated, there have been no reports on the corresponding carotenoid-binding proteins. In this work, we analyze the coloration of two brightly colored Baikal amphipods characterized by intraspecific color variability, Eulimnogammarus cyaneus and E. vittatus. We showed that the color of either species is defined by the level of putative carotenoid-binding proteins similar to the pheromone/odorant-binding protein family, as the concentration of these putative crustacyanin analogs was higher in blue or teal-colored animals than in the orange- or yellow-colored ones. At the same time, the color did not depend on the total carotenoid content, as it was similar between animals of contrasting color morphs. By exploring the diversity of these sequences within a larger phylogeny of invertebrate crustacyanins, we show that amphipods lack orthologs of the well-studied crustacyanins A and C, even though they possess some crustacyanin-like sequences. The analysis of expression levels in E. cyaneus showed that the transcripts encoding crustacyanin analogs had much higher expression than the crustacyanin-like sequences, suggesting that the former indeed contribute to the color of these brightly colored animals. The crustacyanin analogs seem to act in a similar way to the well-studied crustacyanins in body color formation, but the details of their action are still to be revealed.