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Degirmenci A, Sanyal R, Sanyal A. Metal-Free Click-Chemistry: A Powerful Tool for Fabricating Hydrogels for Biomedical Applications. Bioconjug Chem 2024; 35:433-452. [PMID: 38516745 PMCID: PMC11036366 DOI: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.4c00003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2024] [Revised: 02/17/2024] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 03/23/2024]
Abstract
Increasing interest in the utilization of hydrogels in various areas of biomedical sciences ranging from biosensing and drug delivery to tissue engineering has necessitated the synthesis of these materials using efficient and benign chemical transformations. In this regard, the advent of "click" chemistry revolutionized the design of hydrogels and a range of efficient reactions was utilized to obtain hydrogels with increased control over their physicochemical properties. The ability to apply the "click" chemistry paradigm to both synthetic and natural polymers as hydrogel precursors further expanded the utility of this chemistry in network formation. In particular, the ability to integrate clickable handles at predetermined locations in polymeric components enables the formation of well-defined networks. Although, in the early years of "click" chemistry, the copper-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition was widely employed, recent years have focused on the use of metal-free "click" transformations, since residual metal impurities may interfere with or compromise the biological function of such materials. Furthermore, many of the non-metal-catalyzed "click" transformations enable the fabrication of injectable hydrogels, as well as the fabrication of microstructured gels using spatial and temporal control. This review article summarizes the recent advances in the fabrication of hydrogels using various metal-free "click" reactions and highlights the applications of thus obtained materials. One could envision that the use of these versatile metal-free "click" reactions would continue to revolutionize the design of functional hydrogels geared to address unmet needs in biomedical sciences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aysun Degirmenci
- Department
of Chemistry, Bogazici University, Bebek, Istanbul 34342, Türkiye
| | - Rana Sanyal
- Department
of Chemistry, Bogazici University, Bebek, Istanbul 34342, Türkiye
- Center
for Life Sciences and Technologies, Bogazici
University, Bebek, Istanbul 34342, Türkiye
| | - Amitav Sanyal
- Department
of Chemistry, Bogazici University, Bebek, Istanbul 34342, Türkiye
- Center
for Life Sciences and Technologies, Bogazici
University, Bebek, Istanbul 34342, Türkiye
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2
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Preparation and application of poly(α-L-lysine)-based interpenetrating network hydrogel via synchronous free-radical polymerization and amine-anhydride reaction in water. JOURNAL OF POLYMER RESEARCH 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10965-022-03054-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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3
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Wang L, Zhou J, Li L, Feng S. Poly(β-hydroxyl amine)s: Valuable Building Blocks for Supramolecular Elastomers with Tunable Mechanical Performance and Superior Healing Capacity. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14040699. [PMID: 35215612 PMCID: PMC8878133 DOI: 10.3390/polym14040699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2022] [Revised: 02/08/2022] [Accepted: 02/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Supramolecular elastomers integrated with high mechanical toughness and excellent self-healing ability offer attractive applications in various fields such as biomedical materials and wearable electronics. However, the multistep preparation process for creating functional polymer precursors and the expensive stock materials required are two factors that limit the widespread use of supramolecular elastomers. Herein, for the first time, poly(β-hydroxyl amine)s generated by amine-epoxy polymerization were used in the development of supramolecular polymer materials. Based on the novel silicon-containing poly(β-hydroxyl amine)s synthesized by the polymerization between 1,3-bis(3-glycidyloxypropyl)tetramethyldisiloxane and 3-amino-1,2-propanediol, dually cross-linked supramolecular elastomers with both hydrogen bonding and metal coordination were achieved, displaying adjustable mechanical properties with the tensile strength varying from 0.70 MPa to 2.52 MPa, respectively. Thanks to the dynamic nature of the supramolecular interactions, these elastomers exhibited favorable hot-pressing reprocessability and excellent self-healing performance, with the healing efficiency reaching up to 98% at 60 °C for 48 h. Potential applications for photoluminescent materials and flexible electronic devices were demonstrated. We believe that its simplicity of synthesis, adjustable mechanical properties, and robust self-healing capacities bode well for future applications of this new supramolecular elastomer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linlin Wang
- Key Laboratory of Special Functional Aggregated Materials, Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China; (L.W.); (J.Z.); (S.F.)
- Weihai New Era Chemical Co., Ltd., Weihai 264205, China
| | - Jie Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Special Functional Aggregated Materials, Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China; (L.W.); (J.Z.); (S.F.)
| | - Lei Li
- Key Laboratory of Special Functional Aggregated Materials, Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China; (L.W.); (J.Z.); (S.F.)
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Advanced Silicone Materials and Technology, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China
- Correspondence:
| | - Shengyu Feng
- Key Laboratory of Special Functional Aggregated Materials, Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China; (L.W.); (J.Z.); (S.F.)
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Advanced Silicone Materials and Technology, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China
- Key Laboratory of Colloid and Interface Chemistry, Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China
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4
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Yeo H, Akkiraju S, Tan Y, Tahir H, Dilley NR, Savoie BM, Boudouris BW. Electronic and Magnetic Properties of a Three-Arm Nonconjugated Open-Shell Macromolecule. ACS POLYMERS AU 2021; 2:59-68. [PMID: 36855748 PMCID: PMC9954411 DOI: 10.1021/acspolymersau.1c00026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Nonconjugated radical polymers (i.e., macromolecules with aliphatic backbones that have stable open-shell sites along their pendant groups) have arisen as an intriguing complement to π-conjugated polymers in organic electronic devices and may prove to have superior properties in magneto-responsive applications. To date, however, the design of nonconjugated radical polymers has primarily focused on linear homopolymer, copolymer, and block polymer motifs even though conjugated dendritic macromolecules (i.e., polyradicals) have shown significant promise in terms of their response under applied magnetic fields. Here, we address this gap in creating a nonconjugated, three-arm radical macromolecule with nitroxide open-shell sites using a straightforward, single-step reaction, and we evaluated the electronic and magnetic properties of this material using a combined computational and experimental approach. The synthetic approach employed resulted in a high-purity macromolecule with a well-defined molecular weight and narrow molecular weight distribution. Moreover, epoxide-based units were implemented in the three-arm radical macromolecule design, and this resulted in a nonlinear radical macromolecule with a low (i.e., below room temperature) glass transition temperature and one that was an amorphous material in the solid state. These properties allowed thin films of the three-arm radical macromolecule to have electrical conductivity values on par with many linear radical polymers previously reported, and our computational efforts suggest the potential of higher generation open-shell dendrimers to achieve advanced electronic and magnetic properties. Importantly, the three-arm radical macromolecule also demonstrated antiferromagnetic exchange coupling between spins at temperatures < 10 K. In this way, this effort puts forward key structure-property relationships in nonlinear radical macromolecules and presents a clear path for the creation of next-generation macromolecules of this type.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyunki Yeo
- Charles
D. Davidson School of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Siddhartha Akkiraju
- Charles
D. Davidson School of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Ying Tan
- Charles
D. Davidson School of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Hamas Tahir
- Charles
D. Davidson School of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Neil R. Dilley
- Birck
Nanotechnology Center, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Brett M. Savoie
- Charles
D. Davidson School of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Bryan W. Boudouris
- Charles
D. Davidson School of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States,Department
of Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States,
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Zou W, He J. Synthesis of a Hierarchically Branched Dendritic Polymer Possessing Multiple Dendrons on a Dendrimer-like Backbone. Macromolecules 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.1c00851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Wenkai Zou
- The State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Department of Macromolecular Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Junpo He
- The State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Department of Macromolecular Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
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6
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King O, Constant E, Weems AC. Shape Memory Poly(β-hydroxythioether) Foams for Oil Remediation in Aquatic Environments. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:20641-20652. [PMID: 33872493 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c02630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Shape memory poly(β-hydroxythioether) foams were produced using organobase catalyzed reactions between epoxide and thiol monomers, allowing for the rapid formation of porous media within approximately 5 min, confirmed using both rheology and physical foam blowing. The porous materials possess ultralow densities (0.022 g × cm-3) and gel fractions of approximately 93%. Thermomechanical characterizations of the materials revealed glass transition temperatures tunable from approximately 50 to 100 °C, elastic moduli of approximately 2 kPa, and complete strain recovery upon heating of the sample above its glass transition temperature. The foams were characterized for their ability to take up oil from an aqueous multilayered ideal environment, revealing more than 2000% mass of oil (relative to the foam mass) could be collected. Importantly, while post-fabrication functionalization was possible with isocyanate chemistry followed by addition of hexadecanethiol or 3,3-bis(hexadecylthio)propan-1-ol, the oil collection efficiency of the system was not significantly enhanced, indicating that these materials, as porous media, possess unique attributes that make them appealing for environmental remediation without the need for costly modifications or manipulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivia King
- Biomedical Engineering, Russ College of Engineering, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio 45701, United States
| | - Eric Constant
- Biomedical Engineering, Russ College of Engineering, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio 45701, United States
| | - Andrew C Weems
- Biomedical Engineering, Russ College of Engineering, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio 45701, United States
- Department of Mechanical Engineering; Translational Biosciences; Molecular and Chemical Biology; Orthopedic and Musculoskeletal Neurological Institute, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio 45701, United States
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7
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Click chemistry strategies for the accelerated synthesis of functional macromolecules. JOURNAL OF POLYMER SCIENCE 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/pol.20210126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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8
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Cecone C, Costamagna G, Ginepro M, Trotta F. One-step sustainable synthesis of cationic high-swelling polymers obtained from starch-derived maltodextrins. RSC Adv 2021; 11:7653-7662. [PMID: 35423240 PMCID: PMC8695040 DOI: 10.1039/d0ra10715h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 02/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The good water solubility displayed by most starch-derived maltodextrins has limited their use when specific mechanical properties are required, particularly when working in aqueous media. As a result, numerous attempts to cross-link such polysaccharides to obtain cross-linked polymers have been reported; in this context, non-toxic and biocompatible water-soluble diglycidyl ethers have performed well. Besides, amines are commonly used as curing agents in combination with diglycidyl ethers for the production of epoxy resins. For this reason, amine-mediated epoxy ring-opening reactions of 1,4-butanediol diglycidyl ether have been studied as approaches to obtain sustainable cross-linked polymers suitable for eco-friendly scaling-up, based upon commercial starch-derived maltodextrins, using water as a unique solvent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudio Cecone
- Department of Chemistry, NIS Centre, University of Turin Via P. Giuria 7 10125 Torino Italy
| | - Giulia Costamagna
- Department of Chemistry, NIS Centre, University of Turin Via P. Giuria 7 10125 Torino Italy
| | - Marco Ginepro
- Department of Chemistry, NIS Centre, University of Turin Via P. Giuria 7 10125 Torino Italy
| | - Francesco Trotta
- Department of Chemistry, NIS Centre, University of Turin Via P. Giuria 7 10125 Torino Italy
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Oh J, Kim SJ, Oh MK, Khan A. Antibacterial properties of main-chain cationic polymers prepared through amine-epoxy 'Click' polymerization. RSC Adv 2020; 10:26752-26755. [PMID: 35515796 PMCID: PMC9055516 DOI: 10.1039/d0ra04625f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2020] [Accepted: 07/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Poly(β-hydroxyl amine)s are prepared through an amine-epoxy 'click' polymerization process in water under ambient conditions. These materials could be subjected to a post-polymerization protonation/alkylation reaction at the nitrogen atom to yield quaternary ammonium salts in the polymer backbone. The antimicrobial activities indicated that polymers carrying butyl chains at the nitrogen atom are effective towards Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), as only 10-20 μg mL-1 polymer concentrations are required to inhibit the bacterial growth by >90%. One of the candidates was also found to be effective towards Mycobacterium smegmatis (M. smegmatis) - a model organism to develop drugs against rapidly spreading tuberculosis (TB) infections. The hemolysis assay indicated that a majority of antimicrobial agents did not disrupt red blood cell membranes. The mechanistic studies suggested that cell wall disruption by the cationic polymers was the likely cause of bacterial death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junki Oh
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Korea University Seoul 02841 South Korea
| | - Seung-Jin Kim
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Korea University Seoul 02841 South Korea
| | - Min-Kyu Oh
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Korea University Seoul 02841 South Korea
| | - Anzar Khan
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Korea University Seoul 02841 South Korea
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10
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Gevrek TN, Degirmenci A, Sanyal R, Sanyal A. Multifunctional and Transformable 'Clickable' Hydrogel Coatings on Titanium Surfaces: From Protein Immobilization to Cellular Attachment. Polymers (Basel) 2020; 12:E1211. [PMID: 32466521 PMCID: PMC7362003 DOI: 10.3390/polym12061211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2020] [Revised: 05/23/2020] [Accepted: 05/24/2020] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Multifunctionalizable hydrogel coatings on titanium interfaces are useful in a wide range of biomedical applications utilizing titanium-based materials. In this study, furan-protected maleimide groups containing multi-clickable biocompatible hydrogel layers are fabricated on a titanium surface. Upon thermal treatment, the masked maleimide groups within the hydrogel are converted to thiol-reactive maleimide groups. The thiol-reactive maleimide group allows facile functionalization of these hydrogels through the thiol-maleimide nucleophilic addition and Diels-Alder cycloaddition reactions, under mild conditions. Additionally, the strained alkene unit in the furan-protected maleimide moiety undergoes radical thiol-ene reaction, as well as the inverse-electron-demand Diels-Alder reaction with tetrazine containing molecules. Taking advantage of photo-initiated thiol-ene 'click' reactions, we demonstrate spatially controlled immobilization of the fluorescent dye thiol-containing boron dipyrromethene (BODIPY-SH). Lastly, we establish that the extent of functionalization on hydrogels can be controlled by attachment of biotin-benzyl-tetrazine, followed by immobilization of TRITC-labelled ExtrAvidin. Being versatile and practical, we believe that the described multifunctional and transformable 'clickable' hydrogels on titanium-based substrates described here can find applications in areas involving modification of the interface with bioactive entities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tugce Nihal Gevrek
- Department of Chemistry, Bogazici University, Bebek, Istanbul 34342, Turkey; (T.N.G.); (R.S.)
| | - Aysun Degirmenci
- Center for Life Sciences and Technologies, Bogazici University, Istanbul 34342, Turkey;
| | - Rana Sanyal
- Department of Chemistry, Bogazici University, Bebek, Istanbul 34342, Turkey; (T.N.G.); (R.S.)
- Center for Life Sciences and Technologies, Bogazici University, Istanbul 34342, Turkey;
| | - Amitav Sanyal
- Department of Chemistry, Bogazici University, Bebek, Istanbul 34342, Turkey; (T.N.G.); (R.S.)
- Center for Life Sciences and Technologies, Bogazici University, Istanbul 34342, Turkey;
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11
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Oh J, Hong J, Khan A. Ethylene glycol-rich thermosensitive poly(ß-hydroxyl amine)s. JOURNAL OF MACROMOLECULAR SCIENCE PART A-PURE AND APPLIED CHEMISTRY 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/10601325.2020.1761259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Junki Oh
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jeonghui Hong
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Anzar Khan
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, Korea
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12
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Yeo H, Khan A. Photoinduced Proton-Transfer Polymerization: A Practical Synthetic Tool for Soft Lithography Applications. J Am Chem Soc 2020; 142:3479-3488. [PMID: 32040308 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.9b11958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Proton-transfer photopolymerization through the thiol-epoxy "click" reaction is shown to be a versatile new method for the fabrication of micro- and nanosized polymeric patterns. In this approach, complexation of a guanidine base, diazabicycloundecene (DBU), with benzoylphenylpropionic acid (ketoprofen) generates a photolabile salt. Under illumination at a wavelength of 365 nm, the salt undergoes a photodecarboxylation reaction to release DBU as a base. The base-catalyzed ring opening reaction then creates cross-linked poly(β-hydroxyl thio-ether) patterns. The surface chemistry of these patterns can be altered through alkylation of the thio-ether linkages. For example, a reaction with bromoacetic acid produces a hitherto unknown sulfonium/carboxylate-based zwitterionic motif that endows antibiofouling capacity to the micropatterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyunki Yeo
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering , Korea University , 02841 Seoul , South Korea
| | - Anzar Khan
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering , Korea University , 02841 Seoul , South Korea
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13
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Hong J, Oh J, Khan A. Deconstructing poloxamer and poloxamine block copolymers to access poly(ethylene glycol) and poly(propylene oxide)-based thermoresponsive polymers. JOURNAL OF MACROMOLECULAR SCIENCE PART A-PURE AND APPLIED CHEMISTRY 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/10601325.2020.1724055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jeonghui Hong
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Junki Oh
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Anzar Khan
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, Korea
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14
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Cengiz N. Glutathione-responsive multifunctionalizable hydrogels via amine-epoxy “click” chemistry. Eur Polym J 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2019.109441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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15
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Abstract
Amino-functional polyethers have emerged as a new class of “smart”, i.e. pH- and thermoresponsive materials. This review article summarizes the synthesis and applications of these materials, obtained from ring-opening of suitable epoxide monomers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Verkoyen
- Department of Chemistry
- Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz
- 55128 Mainz
- Germany
| | - Holger Frey
- Department of Chemistry
- Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz
- 55128 Mainz
- Germany
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16
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Thermoresponsive Poly(ß-hydroxyl amine)s: Synthesis of a New Stimuli Responsive Amphiphilic Homopolymer Family through Amine-Epoxy 'Click' Polymerization. Polymers (Basel) 2019; 11:polym11121941. [PMID: 31775388 PMCID: PMC6961043 DOI: 10.3390/polym11121941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2019] [Revised: 11/14/2019] [Accepted: 11/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
A new synthesis of amphiphilic homopolymers is described. In this synthesis, commercially available and inexpensive primary amines and di-epoxide molecules are utilized as AA- and BB-types of monomers in an amine-epoxy ‘click’ polymerization process. This process can be carried out in water and at room temperature. It does not require a catalyst or inert conditions and forms no byproducts. Therefore, the polymer synthesis can be carried out in open-air and bench-top conditions and a post-synthesis purification step is not required. The modularity of the synthesis, on the other hand, allows for facile structural modulation and tuning of the thermally triggered aggregation process in the temperature range of 7 to 91 °C. Finally, the underlying principles can be translated from linear architectures to polymer networks (hydrogels).
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