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Nenadović M, Knežević S, Ivanović M, Nenadović S, Kisić D, Popović M, Potočnik J. Influence of Thermal Treatment on the Chemical and Structural Properties of Geopolymer Gels Doped with Nd 2O 3 and Sm 2O 3. Gels 2024; 10:468. [PMID: 39057491 PMCID: PMC11275300 DOI: 10.3390/gels10070468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2024] [Revised: 07/09/2024] [Accepted: 07/12/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
In this research, the influence of the thermal treatment of geopolymer gels at 300 °C, 600 °C and 900 °C when incorporated with 5% rare earth elements (REEs) in the form of (GP-Sm) Sm2O3 and (GP-Nd) Nd2O3 was investigated. Changes in the chemical and structural properties of the geopolymer gels during thermal treatment for 1 h were monitored. Physico-chemical characterization was performed using the following methods: diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy (DRIFTS), scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive spectrometry (SEM-EDS), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). Besides the characterization of the fundamental properties, some practical macroscopic properties were analyzed as well: sorptivity, open porosity, and Archimedean density. The stretching vibrations of Nd-O-Si and Sm-O-Si were confirmed at a value of around 680 cm-1and an Nd-O-Si absorption band at a higher value, together with the most dominant band of Si-O stretching vibration similar for all the samples. No significant chemical changes occurred. Structural analysis showed that for GP-Nd, the largest pore diameter was obtained at 900 °C, while for GP-Sm, the largest pore diameter was obtained at 600 °C. EDS confirmed the amount of dopant to be about 5%. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy showed that for GP-Nd, the ratio of Si and Al changed the most, while for GP-Sm, the ratio of Si and Al decreased with increasing temperature. The contributions of both dopants in the GP-gel structure remained almost unchanged and stable at high temperatures. The atomic percentages obtained by XPS analysis were in accordance with the expected trend; the amount of Si increased with the temperature, while the amount of Al decreased with increasing temperature. The sorptivity and open porosity showed the highest values at 600 °C, while the density of both geopolymers decreased linearly with increasing temperature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miloš Nenadović
- Department of Atomic Physic, Vinča Institute of Nuclear Sciences, National Institute of the Republic of Serbia, University of Belgrade, Mike Petrović Alasa 12-14, Vinča, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia; (D.K.); (M.P.); (J.P.)
| | - Sanja Knežević
- Department of Materials, Vinča Institute of Nuclear Sciences, National Institute of the Republic of Serbia, University of Belgrade, Mike Petrović Alasa 12-14, Vinča, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia; (S.K.); (M.I.); (S.N.)
| | - Marija Ivanović
- Department of Materials, Vinča Institute of Nuclear Sciences, National Institute of the Republic of Serbia, University of Belgrade, Mike Petrović Alasa 12-14, Vinča, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia; (S.K.); (M.I.); (S.N.)
| | - Snežana Nenadović
- Department of Materials, Vinča Institute of Nuclear Sciences, National Institute of the Republic of Serbia, University of Belgrade, Mike Petrović Alasa 12-14, Vinča, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia; (S.K.); (M.I.); (S.N.)
| | - Danilo Kisić
- Department of Atomic Physic, Vinča Institute of Nuclear Sciences, National Institute of the Republic of Serbia, University of Belgrade, Mike Petrović Alasa 12-14, Vinča, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia; (D.K.); (M.P.); (J.P.)
| | - Maja Popović
- Department of Atomic Physic, Vinča Institute of Nuclear Sciences, National Institute of the Republic of Serbia, University of Belgrade, Mike Petrović Alasa 12-14, Vinča, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia; (D.K.); (M.P.); (J.P.)
| | - Jelena Potočnik
- Department of Atomic Physic, Vinča Institute of Nuclear Sciences, National Institute of the Republic of Serbia, University of Belgrade, Mike Petrović Alasa 12-14, Vinča, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia; (D.K.); (M.P.); (J.P.)
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Shaheen N, Chen Z, Alomar M, Su T, Nong Y, Althubaiti N, Yousaf M, Lu Y, Liu Q. Enabling fast ionic transport in CeO 2-La 1-2xBa xBi xFeO 3 nanocomposite electrolyte for low temperature solid oxide fuel cell application. RSC Adv 2023; 13:20663-20673. [PMID: 37435385 PMCID: PMC10331923 DOI: 10.1039/d3ra01698f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2023] [Accepted: 05/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent studies indicate that electrolyte ionic conductivity plays a pivotal role in reducing the operating temperature of solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs). In this regard, nanocomposite electrolytes have drawn significant attention owing to their enhanced ionic conductivity and fast ionic transport. In this study, we fabricated CeO2-La1-2xBaxBixFeO3 nanocomposites and tested them as a high-performance electrolyte for low-temperature solid oxide fuel cells (LT-SOFCs). The prepared samples were characterized by their phase structure, surface, and interface property via transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), followed by being applied in SOFCs to examine their electrochemical performance. In the fuel cells, it was found that the optimal composition 90CeO2-10La1-2xBaxBixFeO3 electrolyte-based SOFC delivered a peak power density of 834 mW cm-2 along with an open circuit voltage (OCV) of 1.04 V at 550 °C. A comparative study revealed that the nanocomposite electrolyte exhibited a total conductivity of 0.11 S cm-1 at 550 °C. Moreover, the rectification curve manifested the formation of the Schottky junction, suppressing the electronic conduction. This study conclusively shows that the addition of La1-2xBaxBixFeO3 (LBBF) into ceria electrolyte is a viable approach for constructing high-performance electrolytes for LT-SOFCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nusrat Shaheen
- School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, State Key Laboratory of Featured Metal Materials and Life-cycle Safety for Composite Structures, Guangxi University Nanning 530004 PR China
- Key Laboratory of Disaster Prevention and Structural Safety of China Ministry of Education, School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Guangxi University Nanning 530004 China
| | - Zheng Chen
- School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, State Key Laboratory of Featured Metal Materials and Life-cycle Safety for Composite Structures, Guangxi University Nanning 530004 PR China
- Key Laboratory of Disaster Prevention and Structural Safety of China Ministry of Education, School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Guangxi University Nanning 530004 China
| | - Muneerah Alomar
- Department of Physics, College of Sciences, Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University P. O. Box 84428 Riyadh 11671 Saudi Arabia
| | - Tao Su
- School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, State Key Laboratory of Featured Metal Materials and Life-cycle Safety for Composite Structures, Guangxi University Nanning 530004 PR China
- Key Laboratory of Disaster Prevention and Structural Safety of China Ministry of Education, School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Guangxi University Nanning 530004 China
| | - Yumei Nong
- School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, State Key Laboratory of Featured Metal Materials and Life-cycle Safety for Composite Structures, Guangxi University Nanning 530004 PR China
- Key Laboratory of Disaster Prevention and Structural Safety of China Ministry of Education, School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Guangxi University Nanning 530004 China
| | - Nada Althubaiti
- Department of Physics, College of Sciences, Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University P. O. Box 84428 Riyadh 11671 Saudi Arabia
| | - Muhammad Yousaf
- Energy Storage Joint Research Center, School of Energy and Environment, Southeast University No. 2 Si Pai Lou Nanjing 210096 China
| | - Yuzheng Lu
- College of Electronic and Engineering, Nanjing Xiaozhuang University Nanjing 211171 China
| | - Qiang Liu
- College of Electronic and Engineering, Nanjing Xiaozhuang University Nanjing 211171 China
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Structural and Chemical Properties of Geopolymer Gels Incorporated with Neodymium and Samarium. Gels 2021; 7:gels7040195. [PMID: 34842670 PMCID: PMC8628784 DOI: 10.3390/gels7040195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Revised: 10/24/2021] [Accepted: 10/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The present work was focused on doping of 1% and 5% both of Nd2O3 and Sm2O3 in geopolymer gels. One of the main goals was to determine the influence of the behavior of Nd and Sm as dopants and structural nanoparticles changes of the final geopolymer formed. It is shown that the disorder formed by alkali activation of metakaolin can accommodate the rare earth cations Nd3+ and Sm3+ into their aluminosilicate framework structure. The main geopolymerization product identified in gels is Al-rich (Na)-AS-H gel comprising Al and Si in tetrahedral coordination. Na+ ions were balancing the negative charge resulting from Al3+ in tetrahedral coordination. The changes in the structures of the final product (geopolymer/Nd2O3; Sm2O3), has been characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis with energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS). Nucleation at the seed surfaces leads to the formation of phase-separated gels from rare earth phase early in the reaction process. It is confirmed that Nd and Sm have been shown to form unstable hydroxides Nd(OH)3 and Sm(OH)3 that are in equilibrium with the corresponding oxides.
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Akbar M, Jin B, Tu Z, Gao J, Yousaf M, Mushtaq N, Wang X, Dong W, Wang B, Cai Y, Xia C. High-performing and stable non-doped ceria electrolyte with amorphous carbonate coating layer for low-temperature solid oxide fuel cells. Electrochim Acta 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2021.139067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Fifere N, Airinei A, Dobromir M, Sacarescu L, Dunca SI. Revealing the Effect of Synthesis Conditions on the Structural, Optical, and Antibacterial Properties of Cerium Oxide Nanoparticles. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 11:2596. [PMID: 34685037 PMCID: PMC8539529 DOI: 10.3390/nano11102596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Revised: 09/26/2021] [Accepted: 09/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Cerium oxide nanoparticles were prepared by a precipitation method using Ce(IV) sulphate as precursor dispersed in glycerol with varying synthesis parameters such as temperature or precipitating agent. The structural and morphological characteristics of the obtained nanoparticles were investigated by X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, and diffuse reflectance spectroscopy. The crystallite size of the nanoparticles varied between 13 and 17 nm. The presence of Ce3+ and Ce4+ was proved by XPS data in the CeO2 samples and the conservation of the fluorite structure was evinced by X-ray diffractograms with a contraction of the lattice parameter, regardless of the size of the nanoparticle. From diffuse reflectance spectra, two band gap energy values for the direct transition were observed. Depending on the synthesis condition, the red shift of gap energy and the blue shift of Urbach energy with increasing content of Ce3+ were ascertained. The antibacterial tests revealed that the cerium oxide nanoparticles show good antimicrobial activity towards the common pathogens Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicusor Fifere
- Petru Poni Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, 41A Grigore Ghica Voda Alley, 700487 Iasi, Romania; (A.A.); (L.S.)
| | - Anton Airinei
- Petru Poni Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, 41A Grigore Ghica Voda Alley, 700487 Iasi, Romania; (A.A.); (L.S.)
| | - Marius Dobromir
- Department of Exact and Natural Sciences, Institute of Interdisciplinary Research, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi, 11 Carol I Blvd., 700506 Iasi, Romania;
| | - Liviu Sacarescu
- Petru Poni Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, 41A Grigore Ghica Voda Alley, 700487 Iasi, Romania; (A.A.); (L.S.)
| | - Simona I. Dunca
- Department of Microbiology, Biology Faculty, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi, 11 Carol I Blvd., 700506 Iasi, Romania;
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Lancellotti I, Piccolo F, Nguyen H, Mastali M, Alzeer M, Illikainen M, Leonelli C. The Effect of Fibrous Reinforcement on the Polycondensation Degree of Slag-Based Alkali Activated Composites. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:2664. [PMID: 34451204 PMCID: PMC8399163 DOI: 10.3390/polym13162664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2021] [Revised: 08/08/2021] [Accepted: 08/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Alternative cementitious binders, based on industrial side streams, characterized by a low carbon footprint, are profitably proposed to partially replace Portland cement. Among these alternatives, alkali-activated materials have attracted attention as a promising cementitious binder. In this paper, the chemical stability of the matrix, in fiber-reinforced slag-based alkali-activated composites, was studied, in order to assess any possible effect of the presence of the reinforcement on the chemistry of polycondensation. For this purpose, organic fiber, cellulose, and an inorganic fiber, basalt, were chosen, showing a different behavior in the alkaline media that was used to activate the slag fine powders. The novelty of the paper is the study of consolidation by means of chemical measurements, more than from the mechanical point of view. The evaluation of the chemical behavior of the starting slag in NaOH, indeed, was preparatory to the understanding of the consolidation degree in the alkali-activated composites. The reactivity of alkali-activated composites was studied in water (integrity test, normed leaching test, pH and ionic conductivity), and acids (leaching in acetic acid and HCl attack). The presence of fibers does not favor nor hinder the geopolymerization process, even if an increase in the ionic conductivity in samples containing fibers leads to the hypothesis that samples with fibers are less consolidated, or that fiber dissolution contributes to the conductivity values. The amorphous fraction was enriched in silicon after HCl attack, but the structure was not completely dissolved, and the presence of an amorphous phase is confirmed (C-S-H gel). Basalt fibers partly dissolved in the alkaline environment, leading to the formation of a C-N-A-S-H gel surrounding the fibers. In contrast, cellulose fiber remained stable in both acidic and alkaline conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabella Lancellotti
- Department of Engineering ‘Enzo Ferrari’, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Vivarelli 10, 41125 Modena, Italy; (F.P.); (C.L.)
| | - Federica Piccolo
- Department of Engineering ‘Enzo Ferrari’, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Vivarelli 10, 41125 Modena, Italy; (F.P.); (C.L.)
| | - Hoang Nguyen
- Fibre and Particle Engineering Research Unit, University of Oulu, Pentti Kaiteran Katu 1, 90014 Oulu, Finland; (H.N.); (M.M.); (M.A.); (M.I.)
| | - Mohammad Mastali
- Fibre and Particle Engineering Research Unit, University of Oulu, Pentti Kaiteran Katu 1, 90014 Oulu, Finland; (H.N.); (M.M.); (M.A.); (M.I.)
| | - Mohammad Alzeer
- Fibre and Particle Engineering Research Unit, University of Oulu, Pentti Kaiteran Katu 1, 90014 Oulu, Finland; (H.N.); (M.M.); (M.A.); (M.I.)
| | - Mirja Illikainen
- Fibre and Particle Engineering Research Unit, University of Oulu, Pentti Kaiteran Katu 1, 90014 Oulu, Finland; (H.N.); (M.M.); (M.A.); (M.I.)
| | - Cristina Leonelli
- Department of Engineering ‘Enzo Ferrari’, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Vivarelli 10, 41125 Modena, Italy; (F.P.); (C.L.)
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Mohd Basri MS, Yek TH, A. Talib R, Mohamed Amin Tawakkal IS, Kamarudin SH, Mazlan N, Maidin NA, Ab Rahman MH. Rice Husk Ash/Silicone Rubber-Based Binary Blended Geopolymer Coating Composite: Fire Retardant, Moisture Absorption, Optimize Composition, and Microstructural Analysis. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:985. [PMID: 33806990 PMCID: PMC8004628 DOI: 10.3390/polym13060985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2021] [Revised: 03/12/2021] [Accepted: 03/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Geopolymer coating using rice husk ash (RHA) as the aluminosilicate source has shown excellent fire retardant properties. However, incorporation of rice husk ash into the geopolymer matrix increased water absorption properties of the polymer composite. As such, silicone rubber (SiR) was introduced to improve the moisture absorption and fire retardant properties of the composite. Additionally, the less efficient one-factor-at-a-time (OFAT) approach was conventionally used in past studies on the RHA-based geopolymer composite. In understanding the optimum value and significant effect of factors on the fire retardant and moisture absorption properties of the binary blended geopolymer coating composite, the use of statistical analysis and regression coefficient model (mathematical model) was considered essential. The objectives of this study are to identify the significant effect of factors on moisture absorption and fire retardant properties, to determine the optimum composition, and to study the microstructure of the rice husk ash/silicone rubber (RHA/SiR)-based binary blended geopolymer coating composite. The RHA/AA and SiR/Ge ratios were chosen as factors, and the response surface methodology (RSM) was employed to design experiments and conduct analyses. Fire retardant and moisture absorption tests were conducted. A scanning electron microscope (SEM) was used to observe the microstructure of geopolymer samples. The RHA/alkaline activator (AA) and SiR/Ge ratios were shown to have a significant effect on the responses (temperature at equilibrium and moisture absorption). The high ratio of RHA/AA and SiR/Ge resulted in a lower temperature at equilibrium (TAE) below 200°C and at moisture absorption below 16%. The optimum formulation for the geopolymer coating composite can be achieved when the RHA/AA ratio, SiR/Ge ratio, and sodium hydroxide concentration are set at 0.85, 0.70, and 14 M, respectively. SEM micrographs of samples with good fire retardant properties showed that the char residue of the geopolymer composite coating, which is a layer of excess silicone rubber, is porous and continuous, thus providing a shielding effect for the layer of geopolymer underneath. The sample with good moisture absorption showed the formation of a thin outer layer of silicone rubber without any cracks. The unreacted SiR formed a thin layer beneath the geopolymer composite matrix providing a good moisture barrier.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohd Salahuddin Mohd Basri
- Department of Process and Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia; (T.H.Y.); (R.A.T.); (I.S.M.A.T.)
- Laboratory of Halal Science Research, Halal Products Research Institute, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), UPM, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia
- Laboratory of Biopolymer and Derivatives, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Tee Hui Yek
- Department of Process and Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia; (T.H.Y.); (R.A.T.); (I.S.M.A.T.)
| | - Rosnita A. Talib
- Department of Process and Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia; (T.H.Y.); (R.A.T.); (I.S.M.A.T.)
| | - Intan Syafinaz Mohamed Amin Tawakkal
- Department of Process and Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia; (T.H.Y.); (R.A.T.); (I.S.M.A.T.)
- Laboratory of Halal Science Research, Halal Products Research Institute, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), UPM, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Siti Hasnah Kamarudin
- School of Industrial Technology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Shah Alam 40450, Selangor, Malaysia;
| | - Norkhairunnisa Mazlan
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia;
- Institute of Advanced Technology (ITMA), Institute of Advanced Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Nurul Ain Maidin
- Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering Technology, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Hang Tuah Jaya, Durian Tunggal 76100, Melaka, Malaysia; (N.A.M.); (M.H.A.R.)
| | - Mohd Hidayat Ab Rahman
- Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering Technology, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Hang Tuah Jaya, Durian Tunggal 76100, Melaka, Malaysia; (N.A.M.); (M.H.A.R.)
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Abstract
Alkali-activated materials are an emerging technology that can serve as an alternative solution to ordinary Portland cement. Due to their alkaline nature, these materials are inherently more electrically conductive than ordinary Portland cement, and have therefore seen numerous applications as sensors and self-sensing materials. This review outlines the current state-of-the-art in strain, temperature and moisture sensors that have been developed using alkali activated materials. Sensor fabrication methods, electrical conductivity mechanisms, and comparisons with self-sensing ordinary Portland cements are all outlined to highlight best practice and propose future directions for research.
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The Role of Bi-Polar Plate Design and the Start-Up Protocol in the Spatiotemporal Dynamics during Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Anode Reduction. ENERGIES 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/en13143552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Start-up conditions largely dictate the performance longevity for solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs). The SOFC anode is typically deposited as NiO-ceramic that is reduced to Ni-ceramic during start-up. Effective reduction is imperative to ensuring that the anode is electrochemically active and able to produce electronic and ionic current; the bi-polar plates (BPP) next to the anode allow the transport of current and gases, via land and channels, respectively. This study investigates a commercial SOFC stack that failed following a typical start-up procedure. The BPP design was found to substantially affect the spatiotemporal dynamics of the anode reduction; Raman spectroscopy detected electrochemically inactive NiO on the anode surface below the BPP land-contacts; X-ray computed tomography (CT) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) identified associated contrasts in the electrode porosity, confirming the extension of heterogeneous features beyond the anode surface, towards the electrolyte-anode interface. Failure studies such as this are important for improving statistical confidence in commercial SOFCs and ultimately their competitiveness within the mass-market. Moreover, the spatiotemporal information presented here may aid in the development of novel BPP design and improved reduction protocol methods that minimize cell and stack strain, and thus maximize cell longevity.
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