Engineering of Doxorubicin-Encapsulating and TRAIL-Conjugated Poly(RGD) Proteinoid Nanocapsules for Drug Delivery Applications

On Transducing Properties of Kombucha-Proteinoid Complexes

We investigate the information processing capacities of kombucha-proteinoid proto-brains, focusing on the transducing properties through accommodation spiking, tonic bursting spiking, and optical and acoustic stimulation. We explore self-organization, adaptability, and emergent phenomena in this unconventional proto-architecture. By constructing kombucha-proteinoid networks exposed to diverse audio stimuli, we analyze nonlinear dynamics using time series analysis. Assessing information representation in the presence of extreme noise, we examine the system's resilience. Our results illustrate intricate pathways resulting from the interplay between the synthetic biological substrate and bio-inspired stimulation. The kombucha-proteinoid proto-brains consistently map complex stimuli to distinct activation levels, showcasing their adaptability and potential for information processing without the need for external shaping circuits.

Proteinoid Polymers and Nanocapsules for Cancer Diagnostics, Therapy and Theranostics: In Vitro and In Vivo Studies

Proteinoids-simple polymers composed of amino acids-were suggested decades ago by Fox and coworkers to form spontaneously by heat. These special polymers may self-assemble in micrometer structures called proteinoid microspheres, presented as the protocells of life on earth. Interest in proteinoids increased in recent years, in particular for nano-biomedicine. They were produced by stepwise polymerization of 3-4 amino acids. Proteinoids based on the RGD motif were prepared for targeting tumors. Nanocapsules form by heating proteinoids in an aqueous solution and slowly cooling to room temperature. Proteinoid polymers and nanocapsules suit many biomedical applications owing to their non-toxicity, biocompatibility and immune safety. Drugs and/or imaging reagents for cancer diagnostic, therapeutic and theranostic applications were encapsulated by dissolving them in aqueous proteinoid solutions. Here, recent in vitro and in vivo studies are reviewed.

Recent Advances in the Development of Nanodelivery Systems Targeting the TRAIL Death Receptor Pathway

The TRAIL (TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand) apoptotic pathway is extensively exploited in the development of targeted antitumor therapy due to TRAIL specificity towards its cognate receptors, namely death receptors DR4 and DR5. Although therapies targeting the TRAIL pathway have encountered many obstacles in attempts at clinical implementation for cancer treatment, the unique features of the TRAIL signaling pathway continue to attract the attention of researchers. Special attention is paid to the design of novel nanoscaled delivery systems, primarily aimed at increasing the valency of the ligand for improved death receptor clustering that enhances apoptotic signaling. Optionally, complex nanoformulations can allow the encapsulation of several therapeutic molecules for a combined synergistic effect, for example, chemotherapeutic agents or photosensitizers. Scaffolds for the developed nanodelivery systems are fabricated by a wide range of conventional clinically approved materials and innovative ones, including metals, carbon, lipids, polymers, nanogels, protein nanocages, virus-based nanoparticles, dendrimers, DNA origami nanostructures, and their complex combinations. Most nanotherapeutics targeting the TRAIL pathway are aimed at tumor therapy and theranostics. However, given the wide spectrum of action of TRAIL due to its natural role in immune system homeostasis, other therapeutic areas are also involved, such as liver fibrosis, rheumatoid arthritis, Alzheimer's disease, and inflammatory diseases caused by bacterial infections. This review summarizes the recent innovative developments in the design of nanodelivery systems modified with TRAIL pathway-targeting ligands.

Nano-TRAIL: a promising path to cancer therapy

Tumor Necrosis Factor-Related Apoptosis-Inducing Ligand, also called apo-2 ligand (TRAIL/Apo-2L), is a cytokine that triggers apoptosis by binding to TRAIL-R1 (DR4) and TRAIL-R2 (DR5) death receptors. Apoptosis occurs through either the extrinsic or intrinsic pathway. The administration of recombinant human TRAIL (rhTRAIL) or TRAIL-receptor (TRAIL-R) agonists promotes apoptosis preferentially in cancerous cells over normal cells in vitro; this phenomenon has also been observed in clinical studies. The limited efficacy of rhTRAIL in clinical trials could be attributed to drug resistance, short half-life, targeted delivery issues, and off-target toxicities. Nanoparticles are excellent drug and gene delivery systems characterized by improved permeability and retention, increased stability and biocompatibility, and precision targeting. In this review, we discuss resistance mechanisms to TRAIL and methods to overcome TRAIL resistance by using nanoparticle-based formulations developed for the delivery of TRAIL peptides, TRAIL-R agonists, and TRAIL genes to cancer cells. We also discuss combinatorial approaches of chemotherapeutic drugs with TRAIL. These studies demonstrate TRAIL's potential as an anticancer agent.

Tumor-Targeted Fluorescent Proteinoid Nanocapsules Encapsulating Synergistic Drugs for Personalized Cancer Therapy

Personalized cancer treatment based on specific mutations offers targeted therapy and is preferred over "standard" chemotherapy. Proteinoid polymers produced by thermal step-growth polymerization of amino acids may form nanocapsules (NCs) that encapsulate drugs overcoming miscibility problems and allowing passive targeted delivery with reduced side effects. The arginine-glycine-glutamic acid (RGD) sequence is known for its preferential attraction to αvβ3 integrin, which is highly expressed on neovascular endothelial cells that support tumor growth. Here, tumor-targeted RGD-based proteinoid NCs entrapping a synergistic combination of Palbociclib (Pal) and Alpelisib (Alp) were synthesized by self-assembly to induce the reduction of tumor cell growth in different types of cancers. The diameters of the hollow and drug encapsulating poly(RGD) NCs were 34 ± 5 and 22 ± 3 nm, respectively; thereby, their drug targeted efficiency is due to both passive and active targeting. The encapsulation yield of Pal and Alp was 70 and 90%, respectively. In vitro experiments with A549, MCF7 and HCT116 human cancer cells demonstrate a synergistic effect of Pal and Alp, controlled release and dose dependence. Preliminary results in a 3D tumor spheroid model with cells derived from patient-derived xenografts of colon cancer illustrate disassembly of spheroids, indicating that the NCs have therapeutic potential.