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Fico D, Rizzo D, Montagna F, Esposito Corcione C. Fused Filament Fabrication and Computer Numerical Control Milling in Cultural Heritage Conservation. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 16:3038. [PMID: 37109876 PMCID: PMC10141658 DOI: 10.3390/ma16083038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2023] [Revised: 04/07/2023] [Accepted: 04/10/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
This paper reports a comparison between the advantages and disadvantages of fused filament fabrication (FFF) and computer numerical control (CNC) milling, when applied to a specific case of conservation of cultural heritage: the reproduction of four missing columns of a 17th-century tabernacle. To make the replica prototypes, European pine wood (the original material) was used for CNC milling, while polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PETG) was used for FFF printing. Neat materials were chemically and structurally characterized (FTIR, XRD, DSC, contact angle measurement, colorimetry, and bending tests) before and after artificial aging, in order to study their durability. The comparison showed that although both materials are subject to a decrease in crystallinity (an increase in amorphous bands in XRD diffractograms) and mechanical performance with aging, these characteristics are less evident in PETG (E = 1.13 ± 0.01 GPa and σ = 60.20 ± 2.11 MPa after aging), which retains water repellent (ca = 95.96 ± 5.56°) and colorimetric (∆E = 2.6) properties. Furthermore, the increase in flexural strain (%) in pine wood, from 3.71 ± 0.03% to 4.11 ± 0.02%, makes it not suitable for purpose. Both techniques were then used to produce the same column, showing that for this specific application CNC milling is quicker than FFF, but, at the same time, it is also much more expensive and produces a huge amount of waste material compared to FFF printing. Based on these results, it was assessed that FFF is more suitable for the replication of the specific column. For this reason, only the 3D-printed PETG column was used for the subsequent conservative restoration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Fico
- Department of Engineering for Innovation, University of Salento, Edificio P, Campus Ecotekne, s.p. 6 Lecce-Monteroni, 73100 Lecce, Italy
| | - Daniela Rizzo
- Department of Cultural Heritage, University of Salento, Via D. Birago 64, 73100 Lecce, Italy
| | - Francesco Montagna
- Department of Engineering for Innovation, University of Salento, Edificio P, Campus Ecotekne, s.p. 6 Lecce-Monteroni, 73100 Lecce, Italy
| | - Carola Esposito Corcione
- Department of Engineering for Innovation, University of Salento, Edificio P, Campus Ecotekne, s.p. 6 Lecce-Monteroni, 73100 Lecce, Italy
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Romani A, Tralli P, Levi M, Turri S, Suriano R. Metallization of Recycled Glass Fiber-Reinforced Polymers Processed by UV-Assisted 3D Printing. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 15:6242. [PMID: 36143554 PMCID: PMC9500989 DOI: 10.3390/ma15186242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2022] [Revised: 08/31/2022] [Accepted: 09/05/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
An ever-growing amount of composite waste will be generated in the upcoming years. New circular strategies based on 3D printing technologies are emerging as potential solutions although 3D-printed products made of recycled composites may require post-processing. Metallization represents a viable way to foster their exploitation for new applications. This paper shows the use of physical vapor deposition sputtering for the metallization of recycled glass fiber-reinforced polymers processed by UV-assisted 3D printing. Different batches of 3D-printed samples were produced, post-processed, and coated with a chromium metallization layer to compare the results before and after the metallization process and to evaluate the quality of the finishing from a qualitative and quantitative point of view. The analysis was conducted by measuring the surface gloss and roughness, analyzing the coating morphology and thickness through the Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) micrographs of the cross-sections, and assessing its adhesion with cross-cut tests. The metallization was successfully performed on the different 3D-printed samples, achieving a good homogeneity of the coating surface. Despite the influence of the staircase effect, these results may foster the investigation of new fields of application, as well as the use of different polymer-based composites from end-of-life products, i.e., carbon fiber-reinforced polymers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessia Romani
- Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering “Giulio Natta”, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy
- Design Department, Politecnico di Milano, Via Durando 10, 20158 Milano, Italy
| | - Paolo Tralli
- Divisione Green Coat, Novellini S.p.a., Strada Romana Nord, 1, 46027 San Benedetto Po, Italy
| | - Marinella Levi
- Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering “Giulio Natta”, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Stefano Turri
- Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering “Giulio Natta”, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Raffaella Suriano
- Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering “Giulio Natta”, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy
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Ziaee M, Johnson JW, Yourdkhani M. 3D Printing of Short-Carbon-Fiber-Reinforced Thermoset Polymer Composites via Frontal Polymerization. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2022; 14:16694-16702. [PMID: 35353492 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.2c02076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
3D printing of fiber-reinforced thermoset composites is desirable for rapid fabrication of 3D composite objects with minimal tooling. One of the main issues in 3D printing of thermoset composites is the low cure rates of matrix resins, which prevents rapid curing and rigidization of composite materials during the printing process and capturing the desired print geometry. Here, we demonstrate a new technique for in situ printing and curing of carbon-fiber-reinforced thermoset composites without any postcuring or postprocessing steps. Upon extrusion and deposition of the composite ink from a printing nozzle, the ink is cured via frontal polymerization, leading to rapid printing of high-quality composites. Tailoring the processing conditions allows for freeform or rapid, supported printing of 3D composite objects with zero void content and highly oriented carbon fiber reinforcements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morteza Ziaee
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, United States
| | - James W Johnson
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, United States
| | - Mostafa Yourdkhani
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, United States
- School of Advanced Materials Discovery, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, United States
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Fico D, Rizzo D, Casciaro R, Esposito Corcione C. A Review of Polymer-Based Materials for Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF): Focus on Sustainability and Recycled Materials. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14030465. [PMID: 35160455 PMCID: PMC8839523 DOI: 10.3390/polym14030465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Revised: 01/04/2022] [Accepted: 01/17/2022] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Recently, Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF), one of the most encouraging additive manufacturing (AM) techniques, has fascinated great attention. Although FFF is growing into a manufacturing device with considerable technological and material innovations, there still is a challenge to convert FFF-printed prototypes into functional objects for industrial applications. Polymer components manufactured by FFF process possess, in fact, low and anisotropic mechanical properties, compared to the same parts, obtained by using traditional building methods. The poor mechanical properties of the FFF-printed objects could be attributed to the weak interlayer bond interface that develops during the layer deposition process and to the commercial thermoplastic materials used. In order to increase the final properties of the 3D printed models, several polymer-based composites and nanocomposites have been proposed for FFF process. However, even if the mechanical properties greatly increase, these materials are not all biodegradable. Consequently, their waste disposal represents an important issue that needs an urgent solution. Several scientific researchers have therefore moved towards the development of natural or recyclable materials for FFF techniques. This review details current progress on innovative green materials for FFF, referring to all kinds of possible industrial applications, and in particular to the field of Cultural Heritage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Fico
- Dipartimento di Ingegneria dell’Innovazione, Università del Salento, Edificio P, Campus Ecotekne, S.P. 6 Lecce-Monteroni, 73100 Lecce, Italy;
| | - Daniela Rizzo
- Dipartimento di Beni Culturali, Università del Salento, Via D. Birago 64, 73100 Lecce, Italy; (D.R.); (R.C.)
| | - Raffaele Casciaro
- Dipartimento di Beni Culturali, Università del Salento, Via D. Birago 64, 73100 Lecce, Italy; (D.R.); (R.C.)
| | - Carola Esposito Corcione
- Dipartimento di Ingegneria dell’Innovazione, Università del Salento, Edificio P, Campus Ecotekne, S.P. 6 Lecce-Monteroni, 73100 Lecce, Italy;
- Correspondence:
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Butenegro JA, Bahrami M, Abenojar J, Martínez MÁ. Recent Progress in Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers Recycling: A Review of Recycling Methods and Reuse of Carbon Fibers. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 14:6401. [PMID: 34771926 PMCID: PMC8585427 DOI: 10.3390/ma14216401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2021] [Revised: 10/21/2021] [Accepted: 10/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The rapid increase in the application of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composite materials represents a challenge to waste recycling. The circular economy approach coupled with the possibility of recovering carbon fibers from CFRP waste with similar properties to virgin carbon fibers at a much lower cost and with lower energy consumption motivate the study of CFRP recycling. Mechanical recycling methods allow the obtention of chopped composite materials, while both thermal and chemical recycling methods aim towards recovering carbon fibers. This review examines the three main recycling methods, their processes, and particularities, as well as the reuse of recycled carbon fibers in the manufacture of new composite materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Antonio Butenegro
- Materials Science and Engineering and Chemical Engineering Department, IAAB, University Carlos III Madrid, 28911 Leganés, Spain; (M.B.); (J.A.); (M.Á.M.)
| | - Mohsen Bahrami
- Materials Science and Engineering and Chemical Engineering Department, IAAB, University Carlos III Madrid, 28911 Leganés, Spain; (M.B.); (J.A.); (M.Á.M.)
| | - Juana Abenojar
- Materials Science and Engineering and Chemical Engineering Department, IAAB, University Carlos III Madrid, 28911 Leganés, Spain; (M.B.); (J.A.); (M.Á.M.)
- Mechanical Engineering Department, Universidad Pontificia Comillas, Alberto Aguilera 25, 28015 Madrid, Spain
| | - Miguel Ángel Martínez
- Materials Science and Engineering and Chemical Engineering Department, IAAB, University Carlos III Madrid, 28911 Leganés, Spain; (M.B.); (J.A.); (M.Á.M.)
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Wang L, Zhang F, Liu Y, Du S, Leng J. Photosensitive Composite Inks for Digital Light Processing Four-Dimensional Printing of Shape Memory Capture Devices. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:18110-18119. [PMID: 33845571 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c02624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
High-performance shape memory thermosetting polymers and their composites for four-dimensional (4D) printing are essential in practical applications. To date, most printable thermosets suffer from complicated processes, poor thermodynamic performances, and low printing speed. Here, photosensitive composite inks for fast photocuring printing are developed. The inks consist of epoxy acrylate (EPAc), polyethylene glycol dimethacrylate (PEGDMA), and carbon fillers, which form a firm network structure when exposed to UV light. EPAc is synthesized via addition esterification of epoxy resin and acrylic acid under mild conditions. It is worth noting that raw materials for the reaction are diverse, including not only various epoxy resins but also molecules with epoxy groups. The 4D printing speed of up to 180 mm/h is mainly attributed to the exothermic reaction initiated by free radicals, which accelerates the polymerization of EPAc and PEGDMA. Most importantly, by increasing the exposure time of each layer from 1 s to 3 s during the printing process, the epoxy composite-infilled carbon nanotubes and carbon fibers are printed to ensure the integrity of the microlayer structure. Furthermore, we design a claw-like catcher device based on the above printable composite inks to demonstrate its potential applications in aerospace, such as grasping end-of-service spacecraft or explosive debris. Undoubtedly, 4D printing technology opens up a new portal for the manufacturing of thermoset epoxy composites and complex structures, which make the shape memory thermosetting epoxy resins and their composites possess excellent properties and good engineering application prospects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linlin Wang
- Centre for Composite Materials and Structures, Harbin Institute of Technology (HIT), No. 2 Yikuang Street, Harbin 150080, People's Republic of China
| | - Fenghua Zhang
- Centre for Composite Materials and Structures, Harbin Institute of Technology (HIT), No. 2 Yikuang Street, Harbin 150080, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanju Liu
- Department of Astronautical Science and Mechanics, Harbin Institute of Technology (HIT), No. 92 West Dazhi Street, Harbin 150001, People's Republic of China
| | - Shanyi Du
- Centre for Composite Materials and Structures, Harbin Institute of Technology (HIT), No. 2 Yikuang Street, Harbin 150080, People's Republic of China
| | - Jinsong Leng
- Centre for Composite Materials and Structures, Harbin Institute of Technology (HIT), No. 2 Yikuang Street, Harbin 150080, People's Republic of China
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Kuo CC, Chen WH. Improving Cooling Performance of Injection Molding Tool with Conformal Cooling Channel by Adding Hybrid Fillers. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13081224. [PMID: 33920123 PMCID: PMC8069664 DOI: 10.3390/polym13081224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Revised: 04/02/2021] [Accepted: 04/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Silicone rubber mold (SRM) is capable of reducing the cost and time in a new product development phase and has many applications for the pilot runs. Unfortunately, the SRM after injection molding has a poor cooling efficiency due to its low thermal conductivity. To improve the cooling efficiency, the thermal conductivity of the SRM was improved by adding fillers into the SRM. An optimal recipe for fabricating a high cooling efficiency low-pressure injection mold with conformal cooling channel fabricated by fused deposition modeling technology was proposed and implemented. This study proposes a recipe combining 52.6 wt.% aluminum powder, 5.3 wt.% graphite powder, and 42.1 wt.% liquid silicon rubber can be used to make SRM with excellent cooling efficiency. The price-performance ratio of this SRM made by the proposed recipe is around 55. The thermal conductivity of the SRM made by the proposed recipe can be increased by up to 77.6% compared with convention SRM. In addition, the actual cooling time of the injection molded product can be shortened up to 69.1% compared with the conventional SRM. The actual cooling time obtained by the experiment is in good agreement with the simulation results with the relative error rate about 20%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chil-Chyuan Kuo
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ming Chi University of Technology, New Taipei City 243, Taiwan;
- Research Center for Intelligent Medical Devices, Ming Chi University of Technology, No. 84, Gungjuan Road, New Taipei City 243, Taiwan
- Correspondence:
| | - Wei-Hua Chen
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ming Chi University of Technology, New Taipei City 243, Taiwan;
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Dhimole VK, Serrao P, Cho C. Review and Suggestion of Failure Theories in Voids Scenario for VARTM Processed Composite Materials. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13060969. [PMID: 33809952 PMCID: PMC8004195 DOI: 10.3390/polym13060969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2021] [Revised: 03/17/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Fiber-reinforced composite structures are used in different applications due to their excellent strength to weight ratio. Due to cost and tool handling issues in conventional manufacturing processes, like resin transfer molding (RTM) and autoclave, vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding (VARTM) is the best choice among industries. VARTM is highly productive and cheap. However, the VARTM process produces complex, lightweight, and bulky structures, suitable for mass and cost-effective production, but the presence of voids and fiber misalignment in the final processed composite influences its strength. Voids are the primary defects, and they cannot be eliminated completely, so a design without considering void defects will entail unreliability. Many conventional failure theories were used for composite design but did not consider the effect of voids defects, thus creating misleading failure characteristics. Due to voids, stress and strain uncertainty affects failure mechanisms, such as microcrack, delamination, and fracture. That’s why a proper selection and understanding of failure theories is necessary. This review discusses previous conventional failure theories followed by work considering the void’s effect. Based on the review, a few prominent theories were suggested to estimate composite strength in the void scenario because they consider the effect of the voids through crack density, crack, or void modeling. These suggested theories were based on damage mechanics (discrete damage mechanics), fracture mechanics (virtual crack closure technique), and micromechanics (representative volume element). The suggested theories are well-established in finite element modeling (FEM), representing an effective time and money-saving tool in design strategy, with better early estimation to enhance current design practices’ effectiveness for composites. This paper gives an insight into choosing the failure theories for composites in the presence of voids, which are present in higher percentages in mass production and less-costly processes (VARTM).
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