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Freitag N, Schneider J, Decottignies V, Fell T, Kucukpinar E, Schlummer M. Waste Study on Flexible Food and Non-Food Packaging: Detailed Analysis of the Plastic Composition of European Polyethylene-Containing Waste Streams. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 17:3202. [PMID: 38998285 PMCID: PMC11242274 DOI: 10.3390/ma17133202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2024] [Revised: 06/13/2024] [Accepted: 06/19/2024] [Indexed: 07/14/2024]
Abstract
Despite extensive sorting, packaging waste often contains a mixture of different materials that make high-quality recycling difficult, especially in the case of flexible packaging. This is partly due to the widespread use of multi-layer laminates and packaging consisting of different inseparably combined materials. To improve the post-consumer recyclate quality and develop optimised recycling processes, it is important to generate a comprehensive understanding of the composition of the sorted packaging waste streams. Therefore, in this study, polyolefin sorting fractions for flexible packaging waste from three European countries are analysed in detail. By selective extraction of the different plastics, their mass fractions in the waste streams are determined. This shows that the PE-rich sorting fractions for flexible packaging are made up of 85-90% of PE, but also contain a certain proportion of foreign materials. A detailed analysis of the layer structures of various types of packaging also provides information on the prevalence of multi-layer packaging and the polymer and non-polymer materials used therein. This shows that particularly in food packaging, with 63-84% of multi-layer and 50-70% of multi-material packaging, a high proportion of foreign materials is used and introduced into the sorting fractions. These insights provide a valuable contribution to the development of recyclable packaging, potential sorting streams and recycling processes, especially with regard to the challenges of the closed-loop recycling of food packaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nelly Freitag
- Fraunhofer Institute for Process Engineering and Packaging IVV, 85354 Freising, Germany; (T.F.); (E.K.); (M.S.)
| | - Johannes Schneider
- Fraunhofer Institute for Process Engineering and Packaging IVV, 85354 Freising, Germany; (T.F.); (E.K.); (M.S.)
| | | | - Tanja Fell
- Fraunhofer Institute for Process Engineering and Packaging IVV, 85354 Freising, Germany; (T.F.); (E.K.); (M.S.)
| | - Esra Kucukpinar
- Fraunhofer Institute for Process Engineering and Packaging IVV, 85354 Freising, Germany; (T.F.); (E.K.); (M.S.)
| | - Martin Schlummer
- Fraunhofer Institute for Process Engineering and Packaging IVV, 85354 Freising, Germany; (T.F.); (E.K.); (M.S.)
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2
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Li T, Theodosopoulos G, Lovell C, Loukodimou A, Maniam KK, Paul S. Progress in Solvent-Based Recycling of Polymers from Multilayer Packaging. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:1670. [PMID: 38932020 PMCID: PMC11207984 DOI: 10.3390/polym16121670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2024] [Revised: 06/03/2024] [Accepted: 06/06/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Conversion of chemical feedstocks derived from fossil fuels to virgin polymer, manufacturing of plastics in coal-dependent economies, and increasing consumption of virgin polymers for plastics packaging contribute significantly to environmental issues and the challenges we face. Nowadays, promoting sustainable development has become the consensus of more and more countries. Among them, the recycling of multilayer packaging is a huge challenge. Due to the complexity of its structure and materials, as well as the limitations of existing recycling frameworks, currently, multilayer packaging cannot be commercially recycled thus resulting in a series of circular economy challenges. It is undeniable that multilayer packaging offers many positive effects on products and consumers, so banning the use of such packaging would be unwise and unrealistic. Developing the appropriate processes to recycle multilayer packaging is the most feasible strategy. In recent years, there have been some studies devoted to the recycling process of multilayer packaging. Many of the processes being developed involve the use of solvents. Based on the recycled products, we categorised these recycling processes as solvent-based recycling, including physical dissolution and chemical depolymerisation. In physical dissolution, there are mainly two approaches named delamination and selective dissolution-precipitation. Focusing on these processes, this paper reviews the solvents developed and used in the last 20 years for the recycling of polymers from multilayer packaging waste and gives a summary of their advantages and disadvantages in terms of cost, product quality, ease of processing, and environmental impact. Based on existing research, one could conclude that solvent-based recycling methods have the potential to be commercialised and become part of a standard recycling process for polymer-based multilayer packaging. The combined use of multiple solvent-based recycling processes could be a breakthrough in achieving unified recycling of multilayer packaging with different components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianmiao Li
- Materials Innovation Centre, School of Engineering, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7RH, UK; (T.L.); (A.L.)
| | - George Theodosopoulos
- Materials Performance and Integrity Technology Group, TWI Ltd., Cambridge CB21 6AL, UK; (G.T.); (K.K.M.)
| | - Chris Lovell
- Materials Performance and Integrity Technology Group, TWI Technology and Training Centre-North East, Middlesbrough TS2 1DJ, UK;
| | - Adamantini Loukodimou
- Materials Innovation Centre, School of Engineering, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7RH, UK; (T.L.); (A.L.)
| | - Kranthi Kumar Maniam
- Materials Performance and Integrity Technology Group, TWI Ltd., Cambridge CB21 6AL, UK; (G.T.); (K.K.M.)
| | - Shiladitya Paul
- Materials Innovation Centre, School of Engineering, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7RH, UK; (T.L.); (A.L.)
- Materials Performance and Integrity Technology Group, TWI Ltd., Cambridge CB21 6AL, UK; (G.T.); (K.K.M.)
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Dang KDN, Ngo QN, Le PK, Chiang KY, Lan Thao Ngo TN. Recovery of aluminum from plastic packages containing aluminum by gasification. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2024; 178:385-394. [PMID: 38442668 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2024.02.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2023] [Revised: 01/10/2024] [Accepted: 02/16/2024] [Indexed: 03/07/2024]
Abstract
The standing pouch, a packaging material made of multiple layers of plastic and metal, presents a significant challenge for full recycling. Gasification shows promise as a method to recover aluminum from this type of waste and convert it into energy. This study aims to evaluate the efficiency of gasification in treating aluminum-containing plastic packages, and recovering aluminum while identifying the optimal combinations of temperature and equivalence ratio (ER) to achieve the best outcomes. The study achieved a conversion rate of 43.06 wt% to 69.42 wt% of the original waste mass into syngas, with aluminum recovery rates ranging from 35.2 % to 65.3 %. Temperature and ER alterations affected the product distribution, aluminum recovery rate, and aluminum partitioning in the products. The results indicated that the combination of 700 °C, ER = 0.4 would provide the largest amount of syngas about 69.42 %, which is the main product of the gasification process, and therefore, this combination is the most optimal for syngas-yielding purposes. Under the reclaiming aluminum is more prioritized, the combination of 800 °C, ER = 0.6 would be the most optimal condition, the majority of Al in fuel was found in char and fly ash were 67.5 % and 4.81 %, respectively. The study focused on the partitioning of aluminum during the gasification process, which was observed to mainly exist in the form of Al2O3(s), with gaseous species including AlCl3(g), AlH(g), and Al2O(g) due to their medium volatility. As the ER increased, the amount of O2 also increased, leading to more Al2O3(s) formation. In conclusion, this research provides a foundation for further exploration of gasification as a means of energy conversion and metal recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khoa Doan Nguyen Dang
- Faculty of Environment and Natural Resources, Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology (HCMUT), 268 Ly Thuong Kiet Street, District 10, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam; Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City, Linh Trung Ward, Thu Duc District, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam
| | - Quoc Nguyen Ngo
- Faculty of Environment and Natural Resources, Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology (HCMUT), 268 Ly Thuong Kiet Street, District 10, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam; Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City, Linh Trung Ward, Thu Duc District, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam
| | - Phung K Le
- Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology (HCMUT), 268 Ly Thuong Kiet Street, District 10, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam; Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City, Linh Trung Ward, Thu Duc District, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam
| | - Kung-Yuh Chiang
- Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Central University, Tao-Yuan 32001, Taiwan.
| | - Thi Ngoc Lan Thao Ngo
- Faculty of Environment and Natural Resources, Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology (HCMUT), 268 Ly Thuong Kiet Street, District 10, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam; Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City, Linh Trung Ward, Thu Duc District, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam.
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Sola A, Trinchi A. Recycling as a Key Enabler for Sustainable Additive Manufacturing of Polymer Composites: A Critical Perspective on Fused Filament Fabrication. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:4219. [PMID: 37959900 PMCID: PMC10649055 DOI: 10.3390/polym15214219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2023] [Revised: 10/20/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Additive manufacturing (AM, aka 3D printing) is generally acknowledged as a "green" technology. However, its wider uptake in industry largely relies on the development of composite feedstock for imparting superior mechanical properties and bespoke functionality. Composite materials are especially needed in polymer AM, given the otherwise poor performance of most polymer parts in load-bearing applications. As a drawback, the shift from mono-material to composite feedstock may worsen the environmental footprint of polymer AM. This perspective aims to discuss this chasm between the advantage of embedding advanced functionality, and the disadvantage of causing harm to the environment. Fused filament fabrication (FFF, aka fused deposition modelling, FDM) is analysed here as a case study on account of its unparalleled popularity. FFF, which belongs to the material extrusion (MEX) family, is presently the most widespread polymer AM technique for industrial, educational, and recreational applications. On the one hand, the FFF of composite materials has already transitioned "from lab to fab" and finally to community, with far-reaching implications for its sustainability. On the other hand, feedstock materials for FFF are thermoplastic-based, and hence highly amenable to recycling. The literature shows that recycled thermoplastic materials such as poly(lactic acid) (PLA), acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET, or its glycol-modified form PETG) can be used for printing by FFF, and FFF printed objects can be recycled when they are at the end of life. Reinforcements/fillers can also be obtained from recycled materials, which may help valorise waste materials and by-products from a wide range of industries (for example, paper, food, furniture) and from agriculture. Increasing attention is being paid to the recovery of carbon fibres (for example, from aviation), and to the reuse of glass fibre-reinforced polymers (for example, from end-of-life wind turbines). Although technical challenges and economical constraints remain, the adoption of recycling strategies appears to be essential for limiting the environmental impact of composite feedstock in FFF by reducing the depletion of natural resources, cutting down the volume of waste materials, and mitigating the dependency on petrochemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonella Sola
- Advanced Materials and Processing, Manufacturing Business Unit, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Clayton, Melbourne, VIC 3169, Australia
| | - Adrian Trinchi
- Advanced Materials and Processing, Manufacturing Business Unit, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Clayton, Melbourne, VIC 3169, Australia
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Seier M, Archodoulaki VM, Koch T, Duscher B, Gahleitner M. Prospects for Recyclable Multilayer Packaging: A Case Study. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:2966. [PMID: 37447609 DOI: 10.3390/polym15132966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2023] [Revised: 06/26/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Food preservation is an essential application for polymers, particularly in packaging. Complex multilayer films, such as those used for modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), extend the shelf life of sensitive foods. These mostly contain various polymers to achieve the necessary combination of mechanic, optic, and barrier properties that limit their recyclability. As the European Union's Circular Economy Action Plan calls for sustainable products and business models, including waste prevention policies and recycling quotas, with plastic packaging being a high priority, solutions towards more sustainable multilayer packaging are urgently needed. This study evaluated and compared the recycling potential of functionally equivalent PET (polyethylene terephthalate) and PP (polypropylene) post-consumer MAP through structure analysis and recycling simulation. The structure analysis revealed that both types of MAP contained functional (stability) and barrier layers (oxygen and moisture). The recycling simulation showed that the PP-based packaging was recyclable 10 times, maintaining its mechanical properties and functionality. At the same time, the PET-based MAP resulted in a highly brittle material that was unsuitable for reprocessing into similar economic value products. The secondary material from the PP-based MAP was successfully manufactured into films, demonstrating the functional possibility of closed-loop recycling. The transition from a linear to a circular economy for MAP is currently still limited by safety concerns due to a lack of sufficient and efficient purification methods, but the proper design of multilayers for recyclability is a first step towards circularity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Seier
- Institute of Materials Science and Technology, TU Wien, Getreidemarkt 9, 1060 Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Thomas Koch
- Institute of Materials Science and Technology, TU Wien, Getreidemarkt 9, 1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Bernadette Duscher
- Borealis Polyolefine GmbH, Innovation Headquarters, St. Peter Str. 25, 4021 Linz, Austria
| | - Markus Gahleitner
- Borealis Polyolefine GmbH, Innovation Headquarters, St. Peter Str. 25, 4021 Linz, Austria
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Saarniit K, Lang H, Kuldjärv R, Laaksonen O, Rosenvald S. The Stability of Phenolic Compounds in Fruit, Berry, and Vegetable Purees Based on Accelerated Shelf-Life Testing Methodology. Foods 2023; 12:foods12091777. [PMID: 37174315 PMCID: PMC10178123 DOI: 10.3390/foods12091777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Revised: 04/19/2023] [Accepted: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Evaluating the stability of polyphenols in fruit, berry, and vegetable purees helps to assess the quality of these products during storage. This study aimed to (1) monitor the stability of total phenolic content (TPC) in four-grain puree with banana and blueberry (FGBB), mango-carrot-sea buckthorn puree (MCB), and fruit and yogurt puree with biscuit (FYB); (2) study the effect of aluminum-layered vs. aluminum-free packaging on the changes in TPC; and (3) assess the suitability of accelerated shelf-life testing (ASLT) methodology to evaluate the stability of polyphenols. The samples were stored at 23 °C for 182, 274, 365, and 427 days. The corresponding time points during ASLT at 40 °C were 28, 42, 56, and 66 days, calculated using Q10 = 3. The TPC was determined with Folin-Ciocalteu method. The results revealed that the biggest decrease in TPC took place with high-pH FGBB, which contained fewer ingredients with bioactive compounds. Minor changes were seen in FYB and MCB, which had lower pH values, and contained a larger amount of ingredients that include polyphenols. In addition, the choice of packaging material did not affect the TPC decrease in each puree. Finally, it was concluded that the ASLT methodology is suitable for studying the TPC changes in such purees, but the corresponding Q10 factors may vary and should be determined based on the chemical profile and ingredient list of the product.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kärt Saarniit
- Center of Food and Fermentation Technologies, Mäealuse 2/4, 12618 Tallinn, Estonia
- Institute of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Tallinn University of Technology, Akadeemia tee 15, 12618 Tallinn, Estonia
| | - Hanna Lang
- Center of Food and Fermentation Technologies, Mäealuse 2/4, 12618 Tallinn, Estonia
| | - Rain Kuldjärv
- Center of Food and Fermentation Technologies, Mäealuse 2/4, 12618 Tallinn, Estonia
| | - Oskar Laaksonen
- Food Sciences, Department of Life Technologies, Faculty of Technology, University of Turku, 20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Sirli Rosenvald
- Center of Food and Fermentation Technologies, Mäealuse 2/4, 12618 Tallinn, Estonia
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Vidal CP, Velásquez E, Gavara R, Hernández-Muñoz P, Muñoz-Shugulí C, José Galotto M, de Dicastillo CL. Modeling the release of an antimicrobial agent from multilayer film containing coaxial electrospun polylactic acid nanofibers. J FOOD ENG 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2023.111524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/05/2023]
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8
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Degradation behavior of multilayer packaging films in the presence of a highly acidic sauce. J FOOD ENG 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2022.111318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Dziadowiec D, Matykiewicz D, Szostak M, Andrzejewski J. Overview of the Cast Polyolefin Film Extrusion Technology for Multi-Layer Packaging Applications. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 16:1071. [PMID: 36770077 PMCID: PMC9920539 DOI: 10.3390/ma16031071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2022] [Revised: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/20/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The review article presents the technology of producing polyolefin-based films by extrusion casting. Due to the wide use of this type of film as packaging for food and other goods, obtaining films with favorable properties is still a challenge for many groups of producers in the plastics market. The feedblock process and multimanifold process are the main methods of producing multi-layer film. In the case of food films, appropriate barrier properties are required, as well as durability and puncture resistance also at low temperatures. On the other hand, in order to properly pack and present products, an appropriate degree of transparency must be maintained. Therefore, processing aids such as anti-slip, anti-block and release agents are commonly used. Other popular modifiers, such as waxes, fatty acid amides and mineral fillers-silica, talc or calcium carbonate-and their use in film extrusion are discussed. The article also presents common production problems and their prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damian Dziadowiec
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Poznan University of Technology, Piotrowo 3, 61-138 Poznan, Poland
- Eurocast Sp. z o.o., Wejherowska 9, 84-220 Strzebielino, Poland
| | - Danuta Matykiewicz
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Poznan University of Technology, Piotrowo 3, 61-138 Poznan, Poland
| | - Marek Szostak
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Poznan University of Technology, Piotrowo 3, 61-138 Poznan, Poland
| | - Jacek Andrzejewski
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Poznan University of Technology, Piotrowo 3, 61-138 Poznan, Poland
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Ferrari F, Striani R, Fico D, Alam MM, Greco A, Esposito Corcione C. An Overview on Wood Waste Valorization as Biopolymers and Biocomposites: Definition, Classification, Production, Properties and Applications. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14245519. [PMID: 36559886 PMCID: PMC9787771 DOI: 10.3390/polym14245519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2022] [Revised: 12/12/2022] [Accepted: 12/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Bio-based polymers, obtained from natural biomass, are nowadays considered good candidates for the replacement of traditional fossil-derived plastics. The need for substituting traditional synthetic plastics is mainly driven by many concerns about their detrimental effects on the environment and human health. The most innovative way to produce bioplastics involves the use of raw materials derived from wastes. Raw materials are of vital importance for human and animal health and due to their economic and environmental benefits. Among these, wood waste is gaining popularity as an innovative raw material for biopolymer manufacturing. On the other hand, the use of wastes as a source to produce biopolymers and biocomposites is still under development and the processing methods are currently being studied in order to reach a high reproducibility and thus increase the yield of production. This study therefore aimed to cover the current developments in the classification, manufacturing, performances and fields of application of bio-based polymers, especially focusing on wood waste sources. The work was carried out using both a descriptive and an analytical methodology: first, a description of the state of art as it exists at present was reported, then the available information was analyzed to make a critical evaluation of the results. A second way to employ wood scraps involves their use as bio-reinforcements for composites; therefore, the increase in the mechanical response obtained by the addition of wood waste in different bio-based matrices was explored in this work. Results showed an increase in Young's modulus up to 9 GPa for wood-reinforced PLA and up to 6 GPa for wood-reinforced PHA.
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Cabrera G, Li J, Maazouz A, Lamnawar K. A Journey from Processing to Recycling of Multilayer Waste Films: A Review of Main Challenges and Prospects. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14122319. [PMID: 35745895 PMCID: PMC9228672 DOI: 10.3390/polym14122319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2022] [Revised: 06/02/2022] [Accepted: 06/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
In a circular economy context with the dual problems of depletion of natural resources and the environmental impact of a growing volume of wastes, it is of great importance to focus on the recycling process of multilayered plastic films. This review is dedicated first to the general concepts and summary of plastic waste management in general, making emphasis on the multilayer films recycling process. Then, in the second part, the focus is dealing with multilayer films manufacturing process, including the most common materials used for agricultural applications, their processing, and the challenges of their recycling, recyclability, and reuse. Hitherto, some prospects are discussed from eco-design to mechanical or chemical recycling approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geraldine Cabrera
- Univ Lyon, CNRS, UMR 5223, Ingénierie des Matériaux Polymères, INSA Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Université Jean Monnet, CEDEX, F-69621 Villeurbanne, France; (G.C.); (J.L.); (A.M.)
| | - Jixiang Li
- Univ Lyon, CNRS, UMR 5223, Ingénierie des Matériaux Polymères, INSA Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Université Jean Monnet, CEDEX, F-69621 Villeurbanne, France; (G.C.); (J.L.); (A.M.)
| | - Abderrahim Maazouz
- Univ Lyon, CNRS, UMR 5223, Ingénierie des Matériaux Polymères, INSA Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Université Jean Monnet, CEDEX, F-69621 Villeurbanne, France; (G.C.); (J.L.); (A.M.)
- Hassan II Academy of Science and Technology, Rabat 10100, Morocco
| | - Khalid Lamnawar
- Univ Lyon, CNRS, UMR 5223, Ingénierie des Matériaux Polymères, INSA Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Université Jean Monnet, CEDEX, F-69621 Villeurbanne, France; (G.C.); (J.L.); (A.M.)
- Correspondence:
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