1
|
Rasilainen I, Lahtela V, Kärki T. A review of plastic waste nanocomposites: assessment of features and applications. DISCOVER NANO 2024; 19:112. [PMID: 38970729 PMCID: PMC11227482 DOI: 10.1186/s11671-024-04062-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2024] [Accepted: 06/29/2024] [Indexed: 07/08/2024]
Abstract
Hundreds of millions of metric tons of plastic waste are generated globally every year. Processing waste into secondary raw material is preferred over energy production and landfilling. However, mechanical recycling generally deteriorates the properties of plastic waste limiting its range of potential applications. Nanocomposite fabrication is a solution to recycle plastic waste into value-added applications due to improved properties generated by nanomaterial reinforcement, however received little study. The aim of this review is to present the current status, identify research gaps and provide topics for further research of polymer nanocomposites prepared from plastic waste in respect to utilized materials, processing methods, enhanced properties, sustainability, economics, nanomaterial safety, and applications. It is found that morphological, mechanical, thermal, flame retardancy, physical, barrier, electrical and shielding properties of plastic waste can be enhanced with low loadings of different nanomaterials making them promising materials for various applications including electronic, shielding, thermal, packaging, filtration, and water treatment. Utilization of plastic waste instead of virgin polymers can be beneficial in respect to economics and sustainability, but the energy intensive and expensive production of the most nanomaterials, and the plastic waste pretreatment methods can negate these benefits. To enhance sustainability, further research should be conducted on utilization of energy friendly nanomaterials in plastic waste nanocomposites. Further research is needed also on polymer nanocomposite safety because of the unknow composition of the plastic waste and the potential for nanomaterial release during nanocomposite's life cycle. All in all, further research and national regulations and guidance are needed on virgin polymer and plastic waste nanocomposites.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ida Rasilainen
- Fiber Composite Laboratory, LUT School of Energy Systems, Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology LUT, Yliopistonkatu 34, 53851, Lappeenranta, Finland.
| | - Ville Lahtela
- SCI-MAT Research Platform & Fiber Composite Laboratory, LUT School of Energy Systems, Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology LUT, Yliopistonkatu 34, 53851, Lappeenranta, Finland
| | - Timo Kärki
- Fiber Composite Laboratory, LUT School of Energy Systems, Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology LUT, Yliopistonkatu 34, 53851, Lappeenranta, Finland
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Ren T, Zhan H, Xu H, Chen L, Shen W, Xu Y, Zhao D, Shao Y, Wang Y. Recycling and high-value utilization of polyethylene terephthalate wastes: A review. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2024; 249:118428. [PMID: 38325788 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2024.118428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2023] [Revised: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 02/04/2024] [Indexed: 02/09/2024]
Abstract
Polyethelene terephthalate (PET) is a well-known thermoplastic, and recycling PET waste is important for the natural environment and human health. This study provides a comprehensive overview of the recycling and reuse of PET waste through energy recovery and physical, chemical, and biological recycling. This article summarizes the recycling methods and the high-value products derived from PET waste, specifically detailing the research progress on regenerated PET prepared by the mechanical recycling of fiber/yarn, fabric, and composite materials, and introduces the application of PET nanofibers recycled by physical dissolution and electrospinning in fields such as filtration, adsorption, electronics, and antibacterial materials. This article explains the energy recovery of PET through thermal decomposition and comprehensively discusses various chemical recycling methods, including the reaction mechanisms, catalysts, conversion efficiencies, and reaction products, with a brief introduction to PET biodegradation using hydrolytic enzymes provided. The analysis and comparison of various recycling methods indicated that the mechanical recycling method yielded PET products with a wide range of applications in composite materials. Electrospinning is a highly promising recycling strategy for fabricating recycled PET nanofibers. Compared to other methods, physical recycling has advantages such as low cost, low energy consumption, high value, simple processing, and environmental friendliness, making it the preferred choice for the recycling and high-value utilization of waste PET.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tianxiang Ren
- Key Laboratory of Clean Dyeing and Finishing Technology of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Sub-center of National Carbon Fiber Engineering Technology Research Center, Shaoxing Sub-center of National Engineering Research Center for Fiber-based Composites, Shaoxing Key Laboratory of High Performance fibers & products, College of Textile and Garment, Shaoxing University, Shaoxing, 312000, China
| | - Haihua Zhan
- Key Laboratory of Clean Dyeing and Finishing Technology of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Sub-center of National Carbon Fiber Engineering Technology Research Center, Shaoxing Sub-center of National Engineering Research Center for Fiber-based Composites, Shaoxing Key Laboratory of High Performance fibers & products, College of Textile and Garment, Shaoxing University, Shaoxing, 312000, China
| | - Huaizhong Xu
- Department of Biobased Materials Science, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Matsugasaki, Sakyo-Ku, Kyoto, 606-8585, Japan
| | - Lifeng Chen
- Shaoxing Baojing Composite Materials Co., Ltd., Shaoxing, 312000, China
| | - Wei Shen
- Shaoxing Baojing Composite Materials Co., Ltd., Shaoxing, 312000, China
| | - Yudong Xu
- Zhejiang Provincial Innovation Center of Advanced Textile Technology, Shaoxing, 312000, China
| | - Defang Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Clean Dyeing and Finishing Technology of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Sub-center of National Carbon Fiber Engineering Technology Research Center, Shaoxing Sub-center of National Engineering Research Center for Fiber-based Composites, Shaoxing Key Laboratory of High Performance fibers & products, College of Textile and Garment, Shaoxing University, Shaoxing, 312000, China; School of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China; Hailiang Group Co., Ltd., Hangzhou, 310000, China.
| | - Yuanyi Shao
- College of Textiles, Donghua University, Shanghai, 201620, China.
| | - Yongtao Wang
- School of Medicine, Shanghai University, Shanghai, 200444, China.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Rusu M, Balc N, Moldovan M, Cuc S, Petean I, Cosma C, Leordean D. Recycled PET Composites Reinforced with Stainless Steel Lattice Structures Made by AM. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:4591. [PMID: 38232028 PMCID: PMC10708650 DOI: 10.3390/polym15234591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2023] [Revised: 11/23/2023] [Accepted: 11/29/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) recycling is one of the most important environmental issues, assuring a cleaner environment and reducing the carbon footprint of technological products, taking into account the quantities used year by year. The recycling possibilities depend on the quality of the collected material and on the targeted product. Current research aims to increase recycling quantities by putting together recycled PET in an innovative way as a filler for the additive manufactured metallic lattice structure. Starting from the structures mentioned above, a new range of composite materials was created: IPC (interpenetrating phase composites), materials with a complex architecture in which a solid phase, the reinforcement, is uniquely combined with the other phase, heated to the temperature of melting. The lattice structure was modeled by the intersection of two rings using Solid Works, which generates the lattice structure, which was further produced by an additive manufacturing technique from 316L stainless steel. The compressive strength shows low values for recycled PET, of about 26 MPa, while the stainless-steel lattice structure has about 47 MPa. Recycled PET molding into the lattice structure increases its compressive strength at 53 MPa. The Young's moduli are influenced by the recycled PET reinforcement by an increase from about 1400 MPa for the bare lattice structure to about 1750 MPa for the reinforced structure. This sustains the idea that recycled PET improves the composite elastic behavior due to its superior Young's modulus of about 1570 MPa, acting synergically with the stainless-steel lattice structure. The morphology was investigated with SEM microscopy, revealing the binding ability of recycled PET to the 316L surface, assuring a coherent composite. The failure was also investigated using SEM microscopy, revealing that the microstructural unevenness may act as a local tensor, which promotes the interfacial failure within local de-laminations that weakens the composite, which finally breaks.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mircea Rusu
- Department of Manufacturing Engineering, Faculty of Industrial Engineering, Robotics and Production Management, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, 103-105 Muncii Blvd, 400641 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; (M.R.); (N.B.); (C.C.)
| | - Nicolae Balc
- Department of Manufacturing Engineering, Faculty of Industrial Engineering, Robotics and Production Management, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, 103-105 Muncii Blvd, 400641 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; (M.R.); (N.B.); (C.C.)
| | - Marioara Moldovan
- Raluca Ripan Institute for Research in Chemistry, Babeș-Bolyai University, 30 Fantanele Street, 400294 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; (M.M.); (S.C.)
| | - Stanca Cuc
- Raluca Ripan Institute for Research in Chemistry, Babeș-Bolyai University, 30 Fantanele Street, 400294 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; (M.M.); (S.C.)
| | - Ioan Petean
- Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Babes-Bolyai University, 11 Arany Janos Street, 400028 Cluj-Napoca, Romania;
| | - Cosmin Cosma
- Department of Manufacturing Engineering, Faculty of Industrial Engineering, Robotics and Production Management, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, 103-105 Muncii Blvd, 400641 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; (M.R.); (N.B.); (C.C.)
| | - Dan Leordean
- Department of Manufacturing Engineering, Faculty of Industrial Engineering, Robotics and Production Management, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, 103-105 Muncii Blvd, 400641 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; (M.R.); (N.B.); (C.C.)
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Titone V, Gulino EF, La Mantia FP. Recycling of Heterogeneous Mixed Waste Polymers through Reactive Mixing. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:polym15061367. [PMID: 36987148 PMCID: PMC10057964 DOI: 10.3390/polym15061367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Revised: 03/03/2023] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 03/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Anything that is not recycled and/or recovered from waste represents a loss of raw materials. Recycling plastics can help to reduce this loss and to reduce greenhouse gases, improving the goal of the decarbonization of plastic. While the recycling of single polymers is well assessed, the recycling of mixed plastics is very difficult because of the strong incompatibility among the different polymers usually present in urban waste. In this work, heterogeneous mixed polymers, i.e., polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS) and polyethylenetherephthalate (PET) were processed using a laboratory mixer under different conditions of temperature, rotational speed and time to evaluate the effect of the above parameters on morphology, viscosity and mechanical properties of the final blends. Morphological analysis shows a strong incompatibility between the polyethylene matrix and the other dispersed polymers. The blends show, of course, a brittle behavior, but this behavior slightly improves with decreasing temperature and increasing rotational speed. A brittle-ductile transition was observed only at a high level of mechanical stress obtained by increasing rotational speed and decreasing temperature and processing time. This behavior has been attributed to both a decrease in the dimensions of the particles of the dispersed phase and to the formation of a small amount of copolymers that act as adhesion promoters between matrix and dispersed phases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vincenzo Titone
- Department of Engineering, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, 90128 Palermo, Italy
| | | | - Francesco Paolo La Mantia
- Department of Engineering, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, 90128 Palermo, Italy
- INSTM, Consortium for Materials Science and Technology, Via Giusti 9, 50125 Florence, Italy
- Correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|