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Sola A, Rosa R, Ferrari AM. Environmental Impact of Fused Filament Fabrication: What Is Known from Life Cycle Assessment? Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:1986. [PMID: 39065302 PMCID: PMC11281121 DOI: 10.3390/polym16141986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2024] [Revised: 07/04/2024] [Accepted: 07/09/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
This systematic review interrogates the literature to understand what is known about the environmental sustainability of fused filament fabrication, FFF (also known as fused deposition modeling, FDM), based on life cycle assessment (LCA) results. Since substantial energy demand is systematically addressed as one of the main reasons for ecological damage in FFF, mitigation strategies are often based on reducing the printing time (for example, adopting thicker layers) or the embodied energy per part (e.g., by nesting, which means by printing multiple parts in the same job). A key parameter is the infill degree, which can be adjusted to the application requirements while saving printing time/energy and feedstock material. The adoption of electricity from renewable resources is also expected to boost the sustainability of distributed manufacturing through FFF. Meanwhile, bio-based and recycled materials are being investigated as less impactful alternatives to conventional fossil fuel-based thermoplastic filaments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonella Sola
- Department of Sciences and Methods for Engineering (DISMI), University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Amendola 2, 42122 Reggio Emilia, Italy; (R.R.); (A.M.F.)
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Patti A. Challenges to Improve Extrusion-Based Additive Manufacturing Process of Thermoplastics toward Sustainable Development. Macromol Rapid Commun 2024:e2400249. [PMID: 38818529 DOI: 10.1002/marc.202400249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2024] [Revised: 05/20/2024] [Indexed: 06/01/2024]
Abstract
This review aims to present the different approaches to lessen the environmental impact of the extrusion-based additive manufacturing (MEX) process of thermoplastic-based resins and protect the ecosystem. The benefits and drawbacks of each alternative, including the use of biomaterials or recycled materials as feedstock, energy efficiency, and polluting emissions reduction, have been examined. First, the technological option of using a pellet-fed printer was compared to a filament-fed printer. Then, common biopolymers utilized in MEX applications are discussed, along with methods for improving the mechanical properties of associated printed products. The introduction of natural fillers in thermoplastic resins and the use of biocomposite filaments have been proposed to improve the specific performance of printed items, highlighting the numerous challenges related to their extrusion. Various polymers and fillers derived from recycling are presented as feeding raw materials for printers to reduce waste accumulation, showing the inferior qualities of the resulting goods when compared to printed products made from virgin materials. Finally, the energy consumption and emissions released into the atmosphere during the printing process are discussed, with the potential for both aspects to be controlled through material selection and operating conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonella Patti
- Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture (DICAr), University of Catania, Viale Andrea Doria 6, Catania, CT, 95125, Italy
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Kuo CC, Liang HX, Huang SH, Tseng SF. Enhancing the Weld Quality of Polylactic Acid Biomedical Materials Using Rotary Friction Welding. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:991. [PMID: 38611249 PMCID: PMC11014142 DOI: 10.3390/polym16070991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2024] [Revised: 03/28/2024] [Accepted: 04/03/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Polylactic acid (PLA) stands out as a biomaterial with immense potential, primarily owing to its innate biodegradability. Conventional methods for manufacturing PLA encompass injection molding or additive manufacturing (AM). Yet, the fabrication of sizable medical devices often necessitates fragmenting them into multiple components for printing, subsequently requiring reassembly to accommodate the constraints posed by the dimensions of the AM platform. Typically, laboratories resort to employing nuts and bolts for the assembly of printed components into expansive medical devices. Nonetheless, this conventional approach of jointing is susceptible to the inherent risk of bolts and nuts loosening or dislodging amid the reciprocating movements inherent to sizable medical apparatus. Hence, investigation into the joining techniques for integrating printed components into expansive medical devices has emerged as a critical focal point within the realm of research. The main objective is to enhance the joint strength of PLA polymer rods using rotary friction welding (RFW). The mean bending strength of welded components, fabricated under seven distinct rotational speeds, surpasses that of the underlying PLA substrate material. The average bending strength improvement rate of welding parts fabricated by RFW with three-stage transformation to 4000 rpm is about 41.94% compared with the average bending strength of PLA base material. The average surface hardness of the weld interface is about 1.25 to 3.80% higher than the average surface hardness of the PLA base material. The average surface hardness of the weld interface performed by RFW with variable rotational speed is higher than the average surface hardness of the weld interface performed at a fixed rotating friction speed. The temperature rise rate and maximum temperature recorded during RFW in the X-axis of the CNC turning machine at the outer edge of the welding part surpassed those observed in the internal temperature of the welding part. Remarkably, the proposed method in this study complies with the Sustainable Development Goals due to its high energy efficiency and low environmental pollution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chil-Chyuan Kuo
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ming Chi University of Technology, No. 84, Gungjuan Road, New Taipei City 24301, Taiwan
- Research Center for Intelligent Medical Devices, Ming Chi University of Technology, No. 84, Gungjuan Road, New Taipei City 24301, Taiwan
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Chang Gung University, No. 259, Wenhua 1st Rd., Guishan Dist., Taoyuan City 33302, Taiwan
- Center for Reliability Engineering, Ming Chi University of Technology, No. 84, Gungjuan Road, Taishan District, New Taipei City 24301, Taiwan
| | - Hua-Xhin Liang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ming Chi University of Technology, No. 84, Gungjuan Road, New Taipei City 24301, Taiwan
| | - Song-Hua Huang
- Li-Yin Technology Co., Ltd., No. 37, Lane 151, Section 1, Zhongxing Road, Wugu District, New Taipei City 241, Taiwan
| | - Shih-Feng Tseng
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Taipei University of Technology, No. 1, Sec. 3, Zhongxiao E. Rd., Da’an Dist., Taipei City 106344, Taiwan
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Spišák E, Nováková-Marcinčínová E, Majerníková J, Mulidrán P, Nováková-Marcinčínová Ľ. Experimental and Numerical Study of Printing Strategy Impact on the Mechanical Properties of Sustainable PLA Materials. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:4639. [PMID: 38139891 PMCID: PMC10748292 DOI: 10.3390/polym15244639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2023] [Revised: 12/03/2023] [Accepted: 12/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
This article is focused on a mechanical properties investigation of three types of sustainable poly lactic acid materials manufactured using the fused filament fabrication process. The purpose of this work was to study the impact of printing strategies on the mechanical properties and predict mechanical behavior under tensile loading using finite element analysis. The testing of mechanical properties was conducted according to the ISO 527 standard. The numerical simulations were conducted in Simufact Forming 2022 software. Analysis of the experimental data showed a dependance of mechanical properties on the used printing strategy. The Clear PLA samples printed in the XY plane exhibited a 43% reduction in tensile strength and a 49% reduction in elongation compared to samples printed from the same material in YZ plane. The experimental results show the influence of the printing orientation on the mechanical properties of 3D-printed samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emil Spišák
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Košice, Letná 9, 042 00 Košice, Slovakia; (E.N.-M.); (J.M.); (P.M.)
| | - Ema Nováková-Marcinčínová
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Košice, Letná 9, 042 00 Košice, Slovakia; (E.N.-M.); (J.M.); (P.M.)
| | - Janka Majerníková
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Košice, Letná 9, 042 00 Košice, Slovakia; (E.N.-M.); (J.M.); (P.M.)
| | - Peter Mulidrán
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Košice, Letná 9, 042 00 Košice, Slovakia; (E.N.-M.); (J.M.); (P.M.)
| | - Ľudmila Nováková-Marcinčínová
- Faculty of Manufacturing Technologies with a Seat in Prešov, Technical University of Kosice, Bayerova 1, 080 01 Prešov, Slovakia;
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