Estimating the Underwater Diffuse Attenuation Coefficient with a Low-Cost Instrument: The KdUINO DIY Buoy

Strategies to obtain a better quality of environmental data gathered by low cost systems

Monitoring systems are ubiquitous in many environmental science fields due to the technological advances in the last decades, which contributed to the migration from conventional to automated observing networks. However, the cost of acquisition and operation of sensor networks is still a limiting factor for their wide use. Under this scenario, low-cost and affordable open-source sensors and systems emerge as an alternative to research-grade instruments. To fulfill the quality requirements defined by international organizations, sensor calibration has to be performed and shall be considered as a basic requirement. Best monitoring practices including established quality control procedures should be implemented for gathering environmental data. With a focus on data gathering, this paper reviews basic concepts on open source technologies, calibration methods, quality control procedures, applications and trends, and possibilities for improving the hardware of low-cost and affordable systems.

Adoption of Responsible Research and Innovation in Citizen Observatories

An ethos of Responsible Research and Innovation (RRI) has been promoted in the last decade, especially within European research. The broad objective is to ensure that research and innovation activities align with society’s needs and expectations. In parallel, citizen observatories seek to mainstream citizen science as a valid paradigm for scientific investigation but additionally as a model for increasing societal participation in local democracy and policy definition. This paper explores how precepts of RRI have permeated research in citizen observatories. The methodology adopted is that of a scoping review. Results confirm a relatively simple adoption of RRI principles. However, the adoption is uneven and shallow, perhaps reflecting the ongoing evolution of both RRI and the citizen observatory model. It is recommended that the diverse actors charged with the definition, design, validation, and deployment of citizen observatories unambiguously integrate, promote, and report on how the RRI principles are reflected in their activities.

Review of the Forel-Ule Index based on in situ and remote sensing methods and application in water quality assessment

Water pollution is considered an acute worldwide environmental issue. At present, the commonly adopted method of water quality characterisation involves the retrieval of optically active water quality parameters based on remote sensing reflectance (R_rs), but this method is subject to the limitation that understanding local scatter and absorption characteristics of light is essential to precisely derive these parameters. Water colour primarily depends on water constituents and is traditionally gauged with the Forel-Ule (FU) scale. In recent years, R_rs within the visible region has been considered to determine the Forel-Ule Index (FUI) for water colour measurement. The FUI exhibits the advantages of remote sensing and does not rely on local retrieval algorithms. Therefore, this index can characterise natural waters in a simple and globally effective manner. As there exists a lack of review articles on the FUI, we present a comprehensive review of this index that may help researchers progress. First, we introduce the most recent techniques for FUI measurement, especially remote sensing-deriving methods. Then, we summarise FUI applications in water quality assessment of oceans and inland waters. Finally, FUI development trends, challenges and application perspectives are examined.

New Radiometric Approaches to Compute Underwater Irradiances: Potential Applications for High-Resolution and Citizen Science-Based Water Quality Monitoring Programs

Measuring the diffuse attenuation coefficient (Kd) allows for monitoring the water body’s environmental status. This parameter is of particular interest in water quality monitoring programs because it quantifies the presence of light and the euphotic zone’s depth. Citizen scientists can meaningfully contribute by monitoring water quality, complementing traditional methods by reducing monitoring costs and significantly improving data coverage, empowering and supporting decision-making. However, the quality of the acquisition of in situ underwater irradiance measurements has some limitations, especially in areas where stratification phenomena occur in the first meters of depth. This vertical layering introduces a gradient of properties in the vertical direction, affecting the associated Kd. To detect and characterize these variations of Kd in the water column, it needs a system of optical sensors, ideally placed in a range of a few cm, improving the low vertical accuracy. Despite that, the problem of self-shading on the instrumentation becomes critical. Here, we introduce a new concept that aims to improve the vertical accuracy of the irradiance measurements: the underwater annular irradiance (Ea). This new concept consists of measuring the irradiance in an annular-shaped distribution. We first compute the optimal annular angle that avoids self-shading and maximizes the light captured by the sensors. Second, we use different scenarios of water types, solar zenith angle, and cloud coverage to assess the robustness of the corresponding diffuse attenuation coefficient, Ka. Finally, we derive empirical functions for computing Kd from Ka. This new concept opens the possibility to a new generation of optical sensors in an annular-shaped distribution which is expected to (a) increase the vertical resolution of the irradiance measurements and (b) be easy to deploy and maintain and thus to be more suitable for citizen scientists.

Citclops: A next-generation sensor system for the monitoring of natural waters and a citizens' observatory for the assessment of ecosystems' status

The European-Commission—funded project ‘Citclops’ (Citizens’ observatory for coast and ocean optical monitoring) developed methods, tools and sensors, which can be used by citizens to monitor natural waters, with a strong focus on long-term data series related to environmental sciences. The new sensors, based on optical technologies, respond to a number of scientific, technical and societal objectives, ranging from more precise monitoring of key environmental descriptors of the aquatic environment (water colour, transparency and fluorescence) to an improved management of data collected with citizen participation. The sensors were tested, calibrated, integrated on several platforms, scientifically validated and demonstrated in the field. The new methods and tools were tested in a citizen-science context. The general conclusion is that citizens are valuable contributors in quality and quantity to the objective of collecting, integrating and analysing fragmented and diverse environmental data. An integration of these data into data-analysis tools has a large potential to support authoritative monitoring and decision-making. In this paper, the project’s objectives, results, technical achievements and lessons learned are presented.

A DIY Low-Cost Wireless Wind Data Acquisition System Used to Study an Arid Coastal Foredune

Environmental studies on coastal dune systems are faced with a considerable cost barrier due to the cost of the instrumentation and sensory equipment required for data collection. These systems play an important role in coastal areas as a protection against erosion and as providers of stability to coastal sedimentary deposits. The DIY (Do-It-Yourself) approach to data acquisition can reduce the cost of these environmental studies. In this paper, a low-cost DIY wireless wind data acquisition system is presented which reduces the cost barrier inherent to these types of studies. The system is deployed for the analysis of the foredune of Maspalomas, an arid dune field situated on the south coast of Gran Canaria (Canary Islands, Spain), for the specific purpose of studying the dynamics of a dune type (tongue dunes), which is typical of this environment. The results obtained can be of interest for the study of these coastal environments at both the local level, for the management of this particular dune field, and at the general level for other similar dune fields around the world.

The Acquisition Rate and Soundness of a Low-Cost Data Acquisition System (LC-DAQ) for High Frequency Applications

This article presents a novel and reliable low-cost data acquisition solution for high frequency and real-time applications in vehicular dynamics. Data acquisition systems for highly dynamic systems based on low-cost platforms face different challenges such as a constrained data retrieval rate. Basic data reading functions in these platforms are inefficient and, when used, they limit electronics acquisition rate capabilities. This paper explains a new low-cost, modular and open platform to read different types of sensors at high speed rates. Conventional reading functions are avoided to speed up acquisition rate, but this negatively affects data reliability of the system. To solve this and exploit higher data managing rates, a number of custom secure layers are implemented to secure a reliable acquisition. This paper describes the new low-cost electronics developed for high rate acquisition applications and inspects its performance and robustness against the introduction of an increasing number of sensors connected to the board. In most cases, acquisition rates of the system are duplicated using this new solution.

Citizen science in hydrological monitoring and ecosystem services management: State of the art and future prospects

Hydrological monitoring is essential to guide evidence-based decision making necessary for sustainable water resource management and governance. Limited hydrometric datasets and the pressure on long-term hydrological monitoring networks make it paramount to explore alternative methods for data collection. This is particularly the case for low-income countries, where data scarcity is more pronounced, and where conventional monitoring methods are expensive and logistically challenging. Citizen science in hydrological research has recently gained popularity and crowdsourced monitoring is a promising cost-effective approach for data collection. Citizen science also has the potential to enhance knowledge co-creation and science-based evidence that underpins the governance and management of water resources. This paper provides a comprehensive review on citizen science and crowdsourced data collection within the context of hydrology, based on a synthesis of 71 articles from 2001 to 2018. Application of citizen science in hydrology is increasing in number and breadth, generating a plethora of scientific data. Citizen science approaches differ in scale, scope and degree of citizen involvement. Most of the programs are found in North America and Europe. Participation mostly comprises a contributory citizen science model, which engages citizens in data collection. In order to leverage the full potential of citizen science in knowledge co-generation, future citizen science projects in hydrology could benefit from more co-created types of projects that establish strong ties between research and public engagement, thereby enhancing the long-term sustainability of monitoring networks.

A Printable Device for Measuring Clarity and Colour in Lake and Nearshore Waters

Two expanding areas of science and technology are citizen science and three-dimensional (3D) printing. Citizen science has a proven capability to generate reliable data and contribute to unexpected scientific discovery. It can put science into the hands of the citizens, increasing understanding, promoting environmental stewardship, and leading to the production of large databases for use in environmental monitoring. 3D printing has the potential to create cheap, bespoke scientific instruments that have formerly required dedicated facilities to assemble. It can put instrument manufacturing into the hands of any citizen who has access to a 3D printer. In this paper, we present a simple hand-held device designed to measure the Secchi depth and water colour (Forel Ule scale) of lake, estuarine and nearshore regions. The device is manufactured with marine resistant materials (mostly biodegradable) using a 3D printer and basic workshop tools. It is inexpensive to manufacture, lightweight, easy to use, and accessible to a wide range of users. It builds on a long tradition in optical limnology and oceanography, but is modified for ease of operation in smaller water bodies, and from small watercraft and platforms. We provide detailed instructions on how to build the device and highlight examples of its use for scientific education, citizen science, satellite validation of ocean colour data, and low-cost monitoring of water clarity, colour and temperature.

Mapping do-it-yourself science

The emergence of Do-It-Yourself (DIY) science movements is becoming a topic widely discussed in academia and policy, as well as by the general public and the media. While DIY approaches enjoy increasing diffusion even in official research, different social actors frequently talk about them in different ways and circumstances. Interaction and negotiation processes amongst actors (e.g. policy makers and DIY communities) define the premises upon which different conceptualisations of DIY science are deployed.In this paper we offer a framework for analysing the discourse on DIY science.Our study consists of a field research of three spaces active in DIY science premises, two dedicated events of the DIY community, and an auto-ethnography in the field of DIY biology.By relying on the theory of social worlds/arenas (SW/A), we collected data on how notions of DIY science are constructed by different social actors and how conceptual borders are built or are likely to shift, resulting in multiple possible SW/A mappings. We conclude that each and every conceptualisation of DIY science cannot stand independently from the situatedness of its multiple contexts, therefore making its usage in policy making and governance particularly complex.

Cave Pearl Data Logger: A Flexible Arduino-Based Logging Platform for Long-Term Monitoring in Harsh Environments

A low-cost data logging platform is presented that provides long-term operation in remote or submerged environments. Three premade “breakout boards” from the open-source Arduino ecosystem are assembled into the core of the data logger. Power optimization techniques are presented which extend the operational life of this module-based design to >1 year on three alkaline AA batteries. Robust underwater housings are constructed for these loggers using PVC fittings. Both the logging platform and the enclosures, are easy to build and modify without specialized tools or a significant background in electronics. This combination turns the Cave Pearl data logger into a generalized prototyping system and this design flexibility is demonstrated with two field studies recording drip rates in a cave and water flow in a flooded cave system. This paper describes a complete DIY solution, suitable for a wide range of challenging deployment conditions.

Some Hardware and Instrumentation Aspects of the Development of an Automation System for Jar Tests in Drinking Water Treatment

The so-called Jar Test (JT) plays a vital role in the drinking water and wastewater treatments for establishing the dosage of flocculants and coagulant. This test is a well-proved laboratory instrumental procedure performed by trained personnel. In this work, a completely novel system for the automation and monitoring of a JT devoted to drinking water treatment is presented. It has been implemented using an industrial programmable controller and sensors and instruments specifically selected for this purpose. Once the parameters of the test have been entered, the stages that compose the JT (stirring, coagulant addition, etc.) are sequentially performed without human intervention. Moreover, all the involved measurements from sensors are collected and made accessible for continuous monitoring of the process. By means of the proposed system, the JT procedure is conducted fully automatically and can be locally and remotely monitored in real-time. Furthermore, the developed system constitutes a portable laboratory that offers advantageous features like scalability and transportability. The proposed system is described focusing on hardware and instrumentation aspects, and successful results are reported.

Citizen science-based water quality monitoring: Constructing a large database to characterize the impacts of combined sewer overflow in New York City

To protect recreational water users from waterborne pathogen exposure, it is crucial that waterways are monitored for the presence of harmful bacteria. In NYC, a citizen science campaign is monitoring waterways impacted by inputs of storm water and untreated sewage during periods of rainfall. However, the spatial and temporal scales over which the monitoring program can sample are constrained by cost and time, thus hindering the construction of databases that benefit both scientists and citizens. In this study, we first illustrate the scientific value of a citizen scientist monitoring campaign by using the data collected through the campaign to characterize the seasonal variability of sampled bacterial concentration as well as its response to antecedent rainfall. Second, we examine the efficacy of the HyServe Compact Dry ETC method, a lower cost and time-efficient alternative to the EPA-approved IDEXX Enterolert method for fecal indicator monitoring, through a paired sample comparison of IDEXX and HyServe (total of 424 paired samples). The HyServe and IDEXX methods return the same result for over 80% of the samples with regard to whether a water sample is above or below the EPA's recreational water quality criteria for a single sample of 110 enterococci per 100mL. The HyServe method classified as unsafe 90% of the 119 water samples that were classified as having unsafe enterococci concentrations by the more established IDEXX method. This study seeks to encourage other scientists to engage with citizen scientist communities and to also pursue the development of cost- and time-efficient methodologies to sample environmental variables that are not easily collected or analyzed in an automated manner.