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Moradi N, Haji Mohamad Hoseyni F, Hajghassem H, Yarahmadi N, Niknam Shirvan H, Safaie E, Kalantar M, Sefidbakht S, Amini A, Eeltink S. Comprehensive quantitative analysis of erythrocytes and leukocytes using trace volume of human blood using microfluidic-image cytometry and machine learning. LAB ON A CHIP 2023; 23:4868-4875. [PMID: 37867384 DOI: 10.1039/d3lc00692a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2023]
Abstract
A diagnostic test based on microfluidic image cytometry and machine learning has been designed and applied for accurate classification of erythrocytes and leukocytes, including a unique fully-automated 5-part quantitative differentiation into neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils, using minute amounts of whole blood in a single counting chamber. A low-cost disposable multilayer microdevice for microfluidic image cytometry was developed that comprises a 1 mm × 22 mm × 70 μm (w × l × h) rectangular microchannel, allowing the analysis of trace volume of blood (20 μL) for each assay. Automated analysis of digitized binary images applying a border following algorithm was performed allowing the qualitative analysis of erythrocytes. Bright-field imaging was used for the detection of erythrocytes and fluorescence imaging for 5-part differentiation of leukocytes after acridine orange staining, applying a convolutional neural network enabling unparalleled speed for identification and automated morphology classification yielding 98.57% accuracy. Blood samples were obtained from 30 volunteers and count values did not significantly differ from data obtained using a commercial automated hematology analyzer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nima Moradi
- University of Tehran, Faculty of New Sciences and Technologies, North Kargar Street, Tehran, Iran.
| | | | - Hassan Hajghassem
- University of Tehran, Faculty of New Sciences and Technologies, North Kargar Street, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Navid Yarahmadi
- University of Tehran, Faculty of New Sciences and Technologies, North Kargar Street, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Hadi Niknam Shirvan
- University of Tehran, Faculty of New Sciences and Technologies, North Kargar Street, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Erfan Safaie
- University of Tehran, Faculty of New Sciences and Technologies, North Kargar Street, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Mahsa Kalantar
- University of Tehran, Faculty of New Sciences and Technologies, North Kargar Street, Tehran, Iran.
| | | | - Ali Amini
- Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Department of Chemical Engineering, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Sebastiaan Eeltink
- Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Department of Chemical Engineering, Brussels, Belgium
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Alonso D, Garcia J, Micó V. Fluholoscopy-Compact and Simple Platform Combining Fluorescence and Holographic Microscopy. BIOSENSORS 2023; 13:253. [PMID: 36832019 PMCID: PMC9954010 DOI: 10.3390/bios13020253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2022] [Revised: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The combination of different imaging modalities into single imaging platforms has a strong potential in biomedical sciences as it permits the analysis of complementary properties of the target sample. Here, we report on an extremely simple, cost-effective, and compact microscope platform for achieving simultaneous fluorescence and quantitative phase imaging modes with the capability of working in a single snapshot. It is based on the use of a single illumination wavelength to both excite the sample's fluorescence and provide coherent illumination for phase imaging. After passing the microscope layout, the two imaging paths are separated using a bandpass filter, and the two imaging modes are simultaneously obtained using two digital cameras. We first present calibration and analysis of both fluorescence and phase imaging modalities working independently and, later on, experimental validation for the proposed common-path dual-mode imaging platform considering static (resolution test targets, fluorescent micro-beads, and water-suspended lab-made cultures) as well as dynamic (flowing fluorescent beads, human sperm cells, and live specimens from lab-made cultures) samples.
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Frater JL, Shirai CL, Brestoff JR. Technological features of blast identification in the cerebrospinal fluid: A systematic review of flow cytometry and laboratory haematology methods. Int J Lab Hematol 2022; 44 Suppl 1:45-53. [PMID: 35785436 PMCID: PMC9463081 DOI: 10.1111/ijlh.13869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2022] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Involvement of the central nervous system (CNS) by acute leukemias (ALs) has important implications for risk stratification and disease outcome. The clinical laboratory plays an essential role in assessment of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) specimens from patients with ALs at initial diagnosis, at the end of treatment, and when CNS involvement is clinically suspected. The two challenges for the laboratory are 1) to accurately provide a cell count of the CSF and 2) to successfully distinguish blasts from other cell types. These tasks are classically performed using manual techniques, which suffer from suboptimal turnaround time, imprecision, and inconsistent inter-operator performance. Technological innovations in flow cytometry and hematology analyzer technology have provided useful complements and/or alternatives to conventional manual techniques. AIMS We performed a PRISMA-compliant systematic review to address the medical literature regarding the development and current state of the art of CSF blast identification using flow cytometry and laboratory hematology technologies. MATERIALS AND METHODS We searched the peer reviewed medical literature using MEDLINE (PubMed interface), Web of Science, and Embase using the keywords "CSF or cerebrospinal" AND "blasts(s)". RESULTS 108 articles were suitable for inclusion in our systematic review. These articles covered 1) clinical rationale for CSF blast identification; 2) morphology-based CSF blast identification; 3) the role of flow cytometry; 4) use of hematology analyzers for CSF blast identification; and 5) quality issues. 9 /L, which is much lower than the original machine count and platelet transfusion was warranted. DISCUSSION 1) Clinical laboratory testing plays a central role in risk stratification and clinical management of patients with acute leukemias, most clearly in pediatric ALs; 2) studies focused on other patient populations, including adults and patients with AML are less prevalent in the literature; 3) improvements in instrumentation may provide better performance for the classification of CSF specimens. CONCLUSION Current challenges include: 1) more precisely characterizing the natural history of AL involvement of the CNS, 2) improvements in automated cell count technology of low cellularity specimens, 3) defining the role of flow MRD testing of CSF specimens and 4) improved recognition of specimen quality by clinicians and laboratory personnel.
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Affiliation(s)
- John L Frater
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Cara Lunn Shirai
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Jonathan R Brestoff
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
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Kadaira K, Kuramitz H, Sugawara K. Designing a Peptide‐Modified Screen‐Printed Gold Electrode as a Sensor for the Human Monocytic Leukemia Cell Line. ELECTROANAL 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.202200204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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5
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How does the Internet of Things (IoT) help in microalgae biorefinery? Biotechnol Adv 2021; 54:107819. [PMID: 34454007 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2021.107819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2021] [Revised: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 08/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Microalgae biorefinery is a platform for the conversion of microalgal biomass into a variety of value-added products, such as biofuels, bio-based chemicals, biomaterials, and bioactive substances. Commercialization and industrialization of microalgae biorefinery heavily rely on the capability and efficiency of large-scale cultivation of microalgae. Thus, there is an urgent need for novel technologies that can be used to monitor, automatically control, and precisely predict microalgae production. In light of this, innovative applications of the Internet of things (IoT) technologies in microalgae biorefinery have attracted tremendous research efforts. IoT has potential applications in a microalgae biorefinery for the automatic control of microalgae cultivation, monitoring and manipulation of microalgal cultivation parameters, optimization of microalgae productivity, identification of toxic algae species, screening of target microalgae species, classification of microalgae species, and viability detection of microalgal cells. In this critical review, cutting-edge IoT technologies that could be adopted to microalgae biorefinery in the upstream and downstream processing are described comprehensively. The current advances of the integration of IoT with microalgae biorefinery are presented. What this review discussed includes automation, sensors, lab-on-chip, and machine learning, which are the main constituent elements and advanced technologies of IoT. Specifically, future research directions are discussed with special emphasis on the development of sensors, the application of microfluidic technology, robotized microalgae, high-throughput platforms, deep learning, and other innovative techniques. This review could contribute greatly to the novelty and relevance in the field of IoT-based microalgae biorefinery to develop smarter, safer, cleaner, greener, and economically efficient techniques for exhaustive energy recovery during the biorefinery process.
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Abstract
Cell counting has become an essential method for monitoring the viability and proliferation of cells. A hemacytometer is the standard device used to measure cell numbers in most laboratories which are typically automated to increase throughput. The principle of both manual and automated hemacytometers is to calculate cell numbers with a fixed volume within a set measurement range (105 ~ 106 cells/ml). If the cell concentration of the unknown sample is outside the range of the hemacytometer, the sample must be prepared again by increasing or decreasing the cell concentration. We have developed a new hemacytometer that has a multi-volume chamber with 4 different depths containing different volumes (0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.8 µl respectively). A multi-volume hemacytometer can measure cell concentration with a maximum of 106 cells/ml to a minimum of 5 × 103 cells/ml. Compared to a typical hemacytometer with a fixed volume of 0.1 µl, the minimum measurable cell concentration of 5 × 103 cells/ml on the multi-volume hemacytometer is twenty times lower. Additionally, the Multi-Volume Cell Counting model (cell concentration calculation with the slope value of cell number in multi-chambers) showed a wide measurement range (5 × 103 ~ 1 × 106 cells/ml) while reducing total cell counting numbers by 62.5% compared to a large volume (0.8 µl-chamber) hemacytometer.
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Šimoliūnas E, Kantakevičius P, Kalvaitytė M, Bagdzevičiūtė L, Alksnė M, Baltriukienė D. DNA-DAPI Interaction-Based Method for Cell Proliferation Rate Evaluation in 3D Structures. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2021; 43:251-263. [PMID: 34070775 PMCID: PMC8929038 DOI: 10.3390/cimb43010021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Revised: 05/04/2021] [Accepted: 05/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Effective cell number monitoring throughout the three-dimensional (3D) scaffold is a key factor in tissue engineering. There are many methods developed to evaluate cell number in 2D environments; however, they often encounter limitations in 3D. Therefore, there is a demand for reliable methods to measure cell proliferation in 3D surroundings. Here, we report a novel technique for the DNA content-based evaluation of cell proliferation using DNA-binding dye DAPI. We demonstrated the method's compatibility with four different cell cultures: cancer lines MCF-7 and MH-22a, embryonic fibroblast cell line Swiss 3T3, and primary mesenchymal stem cell culture isolated from rat's incisors. The DAPI based method was able to successfully evaluate cell proliferation in 2D, 2.5D, and 3D environments. Even though the proposed method does not discriminate between viable and dead cells, it might give a convenient snapshot of the cell number at a given time point. This should help to more reliably evaluate various processes proceeding in 2.5D and 3D cultures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Egidijus Šimoliūnas
- Life Sciences Center, Department of Biological Models, Institute of Biochemistry, Vilnius University, LT-10257 Vilnius, Lithuania; (P.K.); (M.K.); (L.B.); (M.A.); (D.B.)
| | - Paulius Kantakevičius
- Life Sciences Center, Department of Biological Models, Institute of Biochemistry, Vilnius University, LT-10257 Vilnius, Lithuania; (P.K.); (M.K.); (L.B.); (M.A.); (D.B.)
- School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The Univesity of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
| | - Miglė Kalvaitytė
- Life Sciences Center, Department of Biological Models, Institute of Biochemistry, Vilnius University, LT-10257 Vilnius, Lithuania; (P.K.); (M.K.); (L.B.); (M.A.); (D.B.)
| | - Lina Bagdzevičiūtė
- Life Sciences Center, Department of Biological Models, Institute of Biochemistry, Vilnius University, LT-10257 Vilnius, Lithuania; (P.K.); (M.K.); (L.B.); (M.A.); (D.B.)
| | - Milda Alksnė
- Life Sciences Center, Department of Biological Models, Institute of Biochemistry, Vilnius University, LT-10257 Vilnius, Lithuania; (P.K.); (M.K.); (L.B.); (M.A.); (D.B.)
| | - Daiva Baltriukienė
- Life Sciences Center, Department of Biological Models, Institute of Biochemistry, Vilnius University, LT-10257 Vilnius, Lithuania; (P.K.); (M.K.); (L.B.); (M.A.); (D.B.)
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Lv M, Zhao X, Chen F, Yu M, Li C, Sun J. A rapid white blood cell classification system based on multimode imaging technology. JOURNAL OF BIOPHOTONICS 2020; 13:e202000197. [PMID: 32696577 DOI: 10.1002/jbio.202000197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2020] [Revised: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 07/16/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
In order to simplify the complexity of white blood cell classification in existing point-of-care testing (POCT) testing equipment, a white blood cell classification detection system based on microfluidic and multimode imaging was constructed. Microfluidic chip was used in the system. A multimodal optical imaging system based on the characteristics of blood samples was designed to obtain eigenvalue extraction of cells. Afterward, a BP neural network model was constructed to realize automatic classification of white blood cells. Finally, 80 human blood samples were classified and detected by this system and compared with the results of Sysmex XE-5000. The consistency correlation coefficients of white blood cells, lymphocytes, monocytes, neutrophils and eosinophils are 1.038, 0.907, 0.549, 0.922 and 1.028, respectively, and the CV values of the four types of white blood cells in the stability test were all below 10%. In this study, a white blood cell classification and detection system with small size, simple operation, fast single-sample detection, high accuracy, and no maintenance is required. It will provide a solid technical support for the further development of POCT blood cell analysis equipment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng Lv
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
- Institute of Medical Support Technology, Academy of Military Sciences, Tianjin, China
- Department of Medical Technology Support, NCO School of Army Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, China
| | - Xi Zhao
- Graduate School, Academy of Military Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Feng Chen
- Institute of Medical Support Technology, Academy of Military Sciences, Tianjin, China
| | - Ming Yu
- Institute of Medical Support Technology, Academy of Military Sciences, Tianjin, China
| | - Chao Li
- Institute of Medical Support Technology, Academy of Military Sciences, Tianjin, China
| | - Jinggong Sun
- Institute of System Engineering Research, Academy of Military Sciences, Beijing, China
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Olmos CM, Rosero G, Fernández-Cabada T, Booth R, Der M, Cabaleiro JM, Debut A, Cumbal L, Pérez MS, Lerner B. Hybrid microchannel-solid state micropore device for fast and optical cell detection. RSC Adv 2020; 10:5361-5370. [PMID: 35498312 PMCID: PMC9049143 DOI: 10.1039/c9ra09939e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2019] [Accepted: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper presents a methodology for cell detection and counting using a device that combines PDMS (polydimethylsiloxane) microfluidic multilayer channels with a single solid state micropore. Optimal conditions of solid-state micropore fabrication from crystalline silicon wafers are presented. Micropores of varying size can be obtained by directly etching using an etchant agent concentration of 50 wt% KOH, at varying temperatures (40, 60, 80 °C) and voltages (100, 500, 1000 mV). Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and profilometry techniques have been used for the micropore characterization. In order to find optimal conditions for cell detection a COMSOL Multiphysics simulation was performed. Pressure drop, shear stress, fluid viscosities and flow rates parameters were evaluated. The potential viability of the device for cell detection and counting, avoiding cellular damage, is demonstrated. This paper presents a methodology for cell detection and counting using a device that combines PDMS (polydimethylsiloxane) microfluidic multilayer channels with a single solid state micropore.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Carol M. Olmos
- Facultad Regional Haedo
- Universidad Tecnológica Nacional (UTN)
- Haedo
- Argentina
| | - Gustavo Rosero
- Facultad Regional Haedo
- Universidad Tecnológica Nacional (UTN)
- Haedo
- Argentina
| | | | | | - Manuel Der
- Departamento de Física
- Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales
- Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA)
- Cuidad Universitaria
- Buenos Aires
| | - Juan M. Cabaleiro
- CONICET-Fluid Dynamics Laboratory
- Facultad de ingeniería
- Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA)
- Buenos Aires
- Argentina
| | - Alexis Debut
- Centro de Nanociencia y Nanotecnología
- Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE
- Sangolquí
- Ecuador
| | - Luis Cumbal
- Centro de Nanociencia y Nanotecnología
- Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE
- Sangolquí
- Ecuador
| | - Maximiliano S. Pérez
- Facultad Regional Haedo
- Universidad Tecnológica Nacional (UTN)
- Haedo
- Argentina
- Instituto de Ingeniería Biomédica
| | - Betiana Lerner
- Facultad Regional Haedo
- Universidad Tecnológica Nacional (UTN)
- Haedo
- Argentina
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
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The Use of Motion Analysis as Particle Biomarkers in Lensless Optofluidic Projection Imaging for Point of Care Urine Analysis. Sci Rep 2019; 9:17255. [PMID: 31754152 PMCID: PMC6872526 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-53477-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2019] [Accepted: 10/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Urine testing is an essential clinical diagnostic tool. The presence of urine sediments, typically analyzed through microscopic urinalysis or cell culture, can be indicative of many diseases, including bacterial, parasitic, and yeast infections, as well as more serious conditions like bladder cancer. Current urine analysis diagnostic methods are usually centralized and limited by high cost, inconvenience, and poor sensitivity. Here, we developed a lensless projection imaging optofluidic platform with motion-based particle analysis to rapidly detect urinary constituents without the need for concentration or amplification through culture. A removable microfluidics channel ensures that urine samples do not cross contaminate and the lens-free projection video is captured and processed by a low-cost integrated microcomputer. A motion tracking and analysis algorithm is developed to identify and track moving objects in the flow. Their motion characteristics are used as biomarkers to detect different urine species in near real-time. The results show that this technology is capable of detection of red and white blood cells, Trichomonas vaginalis, crystals, casts, yeast and bacteria. This cost-effective device has the potential to be implemented for timely, point-of-care detection of a wide range of disorders in hospitals, clinics, long-term care homes, and in resource-limited regions.
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Handheld Microflow Cytometer Based on a Motorized Smart Pipette, a Microfluidic Cell Concentrator, and a Miniaturized Fluorescence Microscope. SENSORS 2019; 19:s19122761. [PMID: 31248214 PMCID: PMC6630933 DOI: 10.3390/s19122761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2019] [Revised: 06/10/2019] [Accepted: 06/17/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Miniaturizing flow cytometry requires a comprehensive approach to redesigning the conventional fluidic and optical systems to have a small footprint and simple usage and to enable rapid cell analysis. Microfluidic methods have addressed some challenges in limiting the realization of microflow cytometry, but most microfluidics-based flow cytometry techniques still rely on bulky equipment (e.g., high-precision syringe pumps and bench-top microscopes). Here, we describe a comprehensive approach that achieves high-throughput white blood cell (WBC) counting in a portable and handheld manner, thereby allowing the complete miniaturization of flow cytometry. Our approach integrates three major components: a motorized smart pipette for accurate volume metering and controllable liquid pumping, a microfluidic cell concentrator for target cell enrichment, and a miniaturized fluorescence microscope for portable flow cytometric analysis. We first validated the capability of each component by precisely metering various fluid samples and controlling flow rates in a range from 219.5 to 840.5 μL/min, achieving high sample-volume reduction via on-chip WBC enrichment, and successfully counting single WBCs flowing through a region of interrogation. We synergistically combined the three major components to create a handheld, integrated microflow cytometer and operated it with a simple protocol of drawing up a blood sample via pipetting and injecting the sample into the microfluidic concentrator by powering the motorized smart pipette. We then demonstrated the utility of the microflow cytometer as a quality control means for leukoreduced blood products, quantitatively analyzing residual WBCs (rWBCs) in blood samples present at concentrations as low as 0.1 rWBCs/μL. These portable, controllable, high-throughput, and quantitative microflow cytometric technologies provide promising ways of miniaturizing flow cytometry.
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de Kernier I, Ali-Cherif A, Rongeat N, Cioni O, Morales S, Savatier J, Monneret S, Blandin P. Large field-of-view phase and fluorescence mesoscope with microscopic resolution. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2019; 24:1-9. [PMID: 30852855 PMCID: PMC6975188 DOI: 10.1117/1.jbo.24.3.036501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2018] [Accepted: 02/06/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Phase and fluorescence are complementary contrasts that are commonly used in biology. However, the coupling of these two modalities is traditionally limited to high magnification and complex imaging systems. For statistical studies of biological populations, a large field-of-view is required. We describe a 30 mm2 field-of-view dual-modality mesoscope with a 4-μm resolution. The potential of the system to address biological questions is illustrated on white blood cell numeration in whole blood and multiwavelength imaging of the human osteosarcoma (U2-OS) cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isaure de Kernier
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CEA, LETI, Grenoble, France
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, Centrale Marseille, Institut Fresnel, Marseille, France
| | | | | | - Olivier Cioni
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CEA, LETI, Grenoble, France
| | | | - Julien Savatier
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, Centrale Marseille, Institut Fresnel, Marseille, France
| | - Serge Monneret
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, Centrale Marseille, Institut Fresnel, Marseille, France
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