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Abdollahi M, Kuber PM, Rashedi E. Dual Tasking Affects the Outcomes of Instrumented Timed up and Go, Sit-to-Stand, Balance, and 10-Meter Walk Tests in Stroke Survivors. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 24:2996. [PMID: 38793850 PMCID: PMC11125653 DOI: 10.3390/s24102996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2024] [Revised: 04/29/2024] [Accepted: 05/07/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024]
Abstract
Stroke can impair mobility, with deficits more pronounced while simultaneously performing multiple activities. In this study, common clinical tests were instrumented with wearable motion sensors to study motor-cognitive interference effects in stroke survivors (SS). A total of 21 SS and 20 healthy controls performed the Timed Up and Go (TUG), Sit-to-Stand (STS), balance, and 10-Meter Walk (10MWT) tests under single and dual-task (counting backward) conditions. Calculated measures included total time and gait measures for TUG, STS, and 10MWT. Balance tests for both open and closed eyes conditions were assessed using sway, measured using the linear acceleration of the thorax, pelvis, and thighs. SS exhibited poorer performance with slower TUG (16.15 s vs. 13.34 s, single-task p < 0.001), greater sway in the eyes open balance test (0.1 m/s2 vs. 0.08 m/s2, p = 0.035), and slower 10MWT (12.94 s vs. 10.98 s p = 0.01) compared to the controls. Dual tasking increased the TUG time (~14%, p < 0.001), balance thorax sway (~64%, p < 0.001), and 10MWT time (~17%, p < 0.001) in the SS group. Interaction effects were minimal, suggesting similar dual-task costs. The findings demonstrate exaggerated mobility deficits in SS during dual-task clinical testing. Dual-task assessments may be more effective in revealing impairments. Integrating cognitive challenges into evaluation can optimize the identification of fall risks and personalize interventions targeting identified cognitive-motor limitations post stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Ehsan Rashedi
- Industrial and Systems Engineering Department, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY 14623, USA; (M.A.); (P.M.K.)
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Abdollahi M, Rashedi E, Kuber PM, Jahangiri S, Kazempour B, Dombovy M, Azadeh-Fard N. Post-Stroke Functional Changes: In-Depth Analysis of Clinical Tests and Motor-Cognitive Dual-Tasking Using Wearable Sensors. Bioengineering (Basel) 2024; 11:349. [PMID: 38671771 PMCID: PMC11048064 DOI: 10.3390/bioengineering11040349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2024] [Revised: 03/26/2024] [Accepted: 03/28/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Clinical tests like Timed Up and Go (TUG) facilitate the assessment of post-stroke mobility, but they lack detailed measures. In this study, 21 stroke survivors and 20 control participants underwent TUG, sit-to-stand (STS), and the 10 Meter Walk Test (10MWT). Tests incorporated single tasks (STs) and motor-cognitive dual-task (DTs) involving reverse counting from 200 in decrements of 10. Eight wearable motion sensors were placed on feet, shanks, thighs, sacrum, and sternum to record kinematic data. These data were analyzed to investigate the effects of stroke and DT conditions on the extracted features across segmented portions of the tests. The findings showed that stroke survivors (SS) took 23% longer for total TUG (p < 0.001), with 31% longer turn time (p = 0.035). TUG time increased by 20% (p < 0.001) from STs to DTs. In DTs, turning time increased by 31% (p = 0.005). Specifically, SS showed 20% lower trunk angular velocity in sit-to-stand (p = 0.003), 21% longer 10-Meter Walk time (p = 0.010), and 18% slower gait speed (p = 0.012). As expected, turning was especially challenging and worsened with divided attention. The outcomes of our study demonstrate the benefits of instrumented clinical tests and DTs in effectively identifying motor deficits post-stroke across sitting, standing, walking, and turning activities, thereby indicating that quantitative motion analysis can optimize rehabilitation procedures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masoud Abdollahi
- Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY 14623, USA; (M.A.); (P.M.K.); (S.J.); (B.K.); (N.A.-F.)
| | - Ehsan Rashedi
- Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY 14623, USA; (M.A.); (P.M.K.); (S.J.); (B.K.); (N.A.-F.)
| | - Pranav Madhav Kuber
- Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY 14623, USA; (M.A.); (P.M.K.); (S.J.); (B.K.); (N.A.-F.)
| | - Sonia Jahangiri
- Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY 14623, USA; (M.A.); (P.M.K.); (S.J.); (B.K.); (N.A.-F.)
| | - Behnam Kazempour
- Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY 14623, USA; (M.A.); (P.M.K.); (S.J.); (B.K.); (N.A.-F.)
| | - Mary Dombovy
- Department of Rehabilitation and Neurology, Unity Hospital, Rochester, NY 14626, USA;
| | - Nasibeh Azadeh-Fard
- Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY 14623, USA; (M.A.); (P.M.K.); (S.J.); (B.K.); (N.A.-F.)
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Pareja-Cano Á, Arjona JM, Caulfield B, Cuesta-Vargas A. Parameterization of Biomechanical Variables through Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs) in Occasional Healthy Runners. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 24:2191. [PMID: 38610402 PMCID: PMC11014260 DOI: 10.3390/s24072191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2024] [Revised: 03/20/2024] [Accepted: 03/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024]
Abstract
Running is one of the most popular sports practiced today and biomechanical variables are fundamental to understanding it. The main objectives of this study are to describe kinetic, kinematic, and spatiotemporal variables measured using four inertial measurement units (IMUs) in runners during treadmill running, investigate the relationships between these variables, and describe differences associated with different data sampling and averaging strategies. A total of 22 healthy recreational runners (M age = 28 ± 5.57 yrs) participated in treadmill measurements, running at their preferred speed (M = 10.1 ± 1.9 km/h) with a set-up of four IMUs placed on tibias and the lumbar area. Raw data was processed and analysed over selections spanning 30 s, 30 steps and 1 step. Very strong positive associations were obtained between the same family variables in all selections. The temporal variables were inversely associated with the step rate variable in the selection of 30 s and 30 steps of data. There were moderate associations between kinetic (forces) and kinematic (displacement) variables. There were no significant differences between the biomechanics variables in any selection. Our results suggest that a 4-IMU set-up, as presented in this study, is a viable approach for parameterization of the biomechanical variables in running, and also that there are no significant differences in the biomechanical variables studied independently, if we select data from 30 s, 30 steps or 1 step for processing and analysis. These results can assist in the methodological aspects of protocol design in future running research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Álvaro Pareja-Cano
- Grupo Clinimetría en Fisioterapia (CTS 631), Department of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Málaga, 29071 Málaga, Spain; (Á.P.-C.); (J.M.A.)
- Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga y Plataforma en Nanomedicina (IBIMA Plataforma Bionand) Grupo Clinimetria (F-14), 29590 Málaga, Spain
| | - José María Arjona
- Grupo Clinimetría en Fisioterapia (CTS 631), Department of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Málaga, 29071 Málaga, Spain; (Á.P.-C.); (J.M.A.)
- Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga y Plataforma en Nanomedicina (IBIMA Plataforma Bionand) Grupo Clinimetria (F-14), 29590 Málaga, Spain
- Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University Isabel I, 09003 Burgos, Spain
| | - Brian Caulfield
- School of Public Health, Physiotherapy and Sports, University College Dublin, D04 C1P1 Dublin, Ireland;
- Insight Centre, University College Dublin, D04 N2E5 Dublin, Ireland
| | - Antonio Cuesta-Vargas
- Grupo Clinimetría en Fisioterapia (CTS 631), Department of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Málaga, 29071 Málaga, Spain; (Á.P.-C.); (J.M.A.)
- Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga y Plataforma en Nanomedicina (IBIMA Plataforma Bionand) Grupo Clinimetria (F-14), 29590 Málaga, Spain
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Horsley BJ, Tofari PJ, Halson SL, Kemp JG, Chalkley D, Cole MH, Johnston RD, Cormack SJ. Validity and Reliability of Thoracic-Mounted Inertial Measurement Units to Derive Gait Characteristics During Running. J Strength Cond Res 2024; 38:274-282. [PMID: 37884006 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000004612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2023]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Horsley, BJ, Tofari, PJ, Halson, SL, Kemp, JG, Chalkley, D, Cole, MH, Johnston, RD, and Cormack, SJ. Validity and reliability of thoracic-mounted inertial measurement units to derive gait characteristics during running. J Strength Cond Res 38(2): 274-282, 2024-Inertial measurement units (IMUs) attached to the tibia or lumbar spine can be used to analyze running gait but, with team-sports, are often contained in global navigation satellite system (GNSS) units worn on the thoracic spine. We assessed the validity and reliability of thoracic-mounted IMUs to derive gait characteristics, including peak vertical ground reaction force (vGRF peak ) and vertical stiffness (K vert ). Sixteen recreationally active subjects performed 40 m run throughs at 3-4, 5-6, and 7-8 m·s -1 . Inertial measurement units were attached to the tibia, lumbar, and thoracic spine, whereas 2 GNSS units were also worn on the thoracic spine. Initial contact (IC) from a validated algorithm was evaluated with F1 score and agreement (mean difference ± SD ) of gait data with the tibia and lumbar spine using nonparametric limits of agreement (LoA). Test-retest error {coefficient of variation, CV (95% confidence interval [CI])} established reliability. Thoracic IMUs detected a nearly perfect proportion (F1 ≥ 0.95) of IC events compared with tibia and lumbar sites. Step length had the strongest agreement (0 ± 0.04 m) at 3-4 m·s -1 , whereas contact time improved from 3 to 4 (-0.028 ± 0.018 second) to 7-8 m·s -1 (-0.004 ± 0.013 second). All values for K vert fell within the LoA at 7-8 m·s -1 . Test-retest error was ≤12.8% for all gait characteristics obtained from GNSS units, where K vert was most reliable at 3-4 m·s -1 (6.8% [5.2, 9.6]) and vGRF peak at 7-8 m·s -1 (3.7% [2.5, 5.2]). The thoracic-spine site is suitable to derive gait characteristics, including K vert , from IMUs within GNSS units, eliminating the need for additional sensors to analyze running gait.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin J Horsley
- Sports Performance, Recovery, Injury and New Technologies (SPRINT) Research Centre, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Australia
- School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Australia; and
| | - Paul J Tofari
- Sports Performance, Recovery, Injury and New Technologies (SPRINT) Research Centre, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Australia
- School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Australia; and
| | - Shona L Halson
- Sports Performance, Recovery, Injury and New Technologies (SPRINT) Research Centre, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Australia
- School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Australia; and
| | - Justin G Kemp
- School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Australia; and
| | - Daniel Chalkley
- School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Australia; and
| | - Michael H Cole
- School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Australia; and
| | - Rich D Johnston
- Sports Performance, Recovery, Injury and New Technologies (SPRINT) Research Centre, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Australia
- School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Australia; and
- Carnegie Applied Rugby Research (CARR) Centre, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Stuart J Cormack
- Sports Performance, Recovery, Injury and New Technologies (SPRINT) Research Centre, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Australia
- School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Australia; and
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Horsley BJ, Tofari PJ, Halson SL, Kemp JG, Johnston RD, Cormack SJ. Thoracic-Worn Accelerometers Detect Fatigue-Related Changes in Vertical Stiffness During Sprinting. J Strength Cond Res 2024; 38:283-289. [PMID: 37884002 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000004614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2023]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Horsley, BJ, Tofari, PJ, Halson, SL, Kemp, JG, Johnston, RD, and Cormack, SJ. Thoracic-worn accelerometers detect fatigue-related changes in vertical stiffness during sprinting. J Strength Cond Res 38(2): 283-289, 2024-Thoracic-mounted accelerometers are valid and reliable for analyzing gait characteristics and may provide the opportunity to assess running-related neuromuscular fatigue (NMF) during training and competition without the need for additional tests, such as a countermovement jump (CMJ). However, their sensitivity for detecting fatigue-related changes in gait across different speeds is unclear. We, therefore, assessed the changes in accelerometer-derived gait characteristics, including vertical stiffness (K vert ), following a repeated sprint protocol (RSP). Sixteen recreationally active subjects performed single and repeated CMJs on a force plate and 40 m run throughs overground at 3-4, 5-6, and 7-8 m·s -1 pre-post a 12 × 40 m RSP. Gait characteristics (contact time, step frequency, step length, K vert , etc.) were derived from an accelerometer contained within a global navigation satellite system unit on the thoracic spine using a validated algorithm. Changes in running gait and CMJ performance were assessed using a linear mixed-effects model (95% confidence interval [95% CI]; effect size [ES]). Significance was set at p < 0.05. A significant reduction in K vert occurred at 7-8 m·s -1 following the RSP (-8.51 kN·m -1 [-13.9, -3.11]; p = 0.007; ES [95% CI] = -0.39 [-0.62, -0.15]) which coincided with a decreased jump height (-0.03 m [-0.04, -0.01]; p = 0.002; ES [95% CI] = -0.87 [-1.41, -0.30]). However, all other gait characteristics were not significantly different irrespective of speed. Thoracic-worn accelerometers can detect changes in K vert at 7-8 m·s -1 which may be useful for monitoring NMF during sprinting. However, a RSP does not result in altered gait mechanics in subsequent running at lower speeds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin J Horsley
- Sports Performance, Recovery, Injury and New Technologies (SPRINT) Research Centre, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Australia
- School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Australia; and
| | - Paul J Tofari
- Sports Performance, Recovery, Injury and New Technologies (SPRINT) Research Centre, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Australia
- School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Australia; and
| | - Shona L Halson
- Sports Performance, Recovery, Injury and New Technologies (SPRINT) Research Centre, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Australia
- School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Australia; and
| | - Justin G Kemp
- School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Australia; and
| | - Rich D Johnston
- Sports Performance, Recovery, Injury and New Technologies (SPRINT) Research Centre, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Australia
- School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Australia; and
- Carnegie Applied Rugby Research (CARR) Centre, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Stuart J Cormack
- Sports Performance, Recovery, Injury and New Technologies (SPRINT) Research Centre, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Australia
- School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Australia; and
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Debertin D, Wargel A, Mohr M. Reliability of Xsens IMU-Based Lower Extremity Joint Angles during In-Field Running. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 24:871. [PMID: 38339587 PMCID: PMC10856827 DOI: 10.3390/s24030871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2023] [Revised: 01/19/2024] [Accepted: 01/23/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024]
Abstract
The Xsens Link motion capture suit has become a popular tool in investigating 3D running kinematics based on wearable inertial measurement units outside of the laboratory. In this study, we investigated the reliability of Xsens-based lower extremity joint angles during unconstrained running on stable (asphalt) and unstable (woodchip) surfaces within and between five different testing days in a group of 17 recreational runners (8 female, 9 male). Specifically, we determined the within-day and between-day intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) and minimal detectable changes (MDCs) with respect to discrete ankle, knee, and hip joint angles. When comparing runs within the same day, the investigated Xsens-based joint angles generally showed good to excellent reliability (median ICCs > 0.9). Between-day reliability was generally lower than the within-day estimates: Initial hip, knee, and ankle angles in the sagittal plane showed good reliability (median ICCs > 0.88), while ankle and hip angles in the frontal plane showed only poor to moderate reliability (median ICCs 0.38-0.83). The results were largely unaffected by the surface. In conclusion, within-day adaptations in lower-extremity running kinematics can be captured with the Xsens Link system. Our data on between-day reliability suggest caution when trying to capture longitudinal adaptations, specifically for ankle and hip joint angles in the frontal plane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Debertin
- Department of Sport Science, University of Innsbruck, Fürstenweg 185, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria;
| | | | - Maurice Mohr
- Department of Sport Science, University of Innsbruck, Fürstenweg 185, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria;
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Mason R, Barry G, Robinson H, O'Callaghan B, Lennon O, Godfrey A, Stuart S. Validity and reliability of the DANU sports system for walking and running gait assessment. Physiol Meas 2023; 44:115001. [PMID: 37852268 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6579/ad04b4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/20/2023]
Abstract
Objective. Gait assessments have traditionally been analysed in laboratory settings, but this may not reflect natural gait. Wearable technology may offer an alternative due to its versatility. The purpose of the study was to establish the validity and reliability of temporal gait outcomes calculated by the DANU sports system, against a 3D motion capture reference system.Approach. Forty-one healthy adults (26 M, 15 F, age 36.4 ± 11.8 years) completed a series of overground walking and jogging trials and 60 s treadmill walking and running trials at various speeds (8-14 km hr-1), participants returned for a second testing session to repeat the same testing.Main results. For validity, 1406 steps and 613 trials during overground and across all treadmill trials were analysed respectively. Temporal outcomes generated by the DANU sports system included ground contact time, swing time and stride time all demonstrated excellent agreement compared to the laboratory reference (intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) > 0.900), aside from ground contact time during overground jogging which had good agreement (ICC = 0.778). For reliability, 666 overground and 511 treadmill trials across all speeds were examined. Test re-test agreement was excellent for all outcomes across treadmill trials (ICC > 0.900), except for swing time during treadmill walking which had good agreement (ICC = 0.886). Overground trials demonstrated moderate to good test re-test agreement (ICC = 0.672-0.750), which may be due to inherent variability of self-selected (rather than treadmill set) pacing between sessions.Significance. Overall, this study showed that temporal gait outcomes from the DANU Sports System had good to excellent validity and moderate to excellent reliability in healthy adults compared to an established laboratory reference.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Mason
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Gillian Barry
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | | - Alan Godfrey
- Department of Computer and Information Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcasle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Samuel Stuart
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
- Department of Neurology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, United States of America
- Northumbria Healthcare NHS Foundation Trust, North Shields, United Kingdom
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Genitrini M, Fritz J, Stöggl T, Schwameder H. Performance Level Affects Full Body Kinematics and Spatiotemporal Parameters in Trail Running-A Field Study. Sports (Basel) 2023; 11:188. [PMID: 37888515 PMCID: PMC10611210 DOI: 10.3390/sports11100188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2023] [Revised: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 09/15/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Trail running is an emerging discipline with few studies performed in ecological conditions. The aim of this work was to investigate if and how biomechanics differ between more proficient (MP) and less proficient (LP) trail runners. Twenty participants (10 F) were recruited for a 9.1 km trail running time trial wearing inertial sensors. The MP athletes group was composed of the fastest five men and the fastest five women. Group differences in spatiotemporal parameters and leg stiffness were tested with the Mann-Whitney U-test. Group differences in joint angles were tested with statistic parametric mapping. The finish time was 51.1 ± 6.3 min for the MP athletes and 60.0 ± 5.5 min for the LP athletes (p < 0.05). Uphill sections: The MP athletes expressed a tendency to higher speed that was not significant (p > 0.05), achieved by combining higher step frequency and higher step length. They showed a tendency to shorter contact time, lower duty factor and longer flight time that was not significant (p > 0.05) as well as significantly lower knee flexion during the stance phase (p < 0.05). Downhill sections: The MP athletes achieved significantly higher speed (p < 0.05) through higher step length only. They showed significantly higher knee and hip flexion during the swing phase as well as higher trunk rotation and shoulder flexion during the stance phase (p < 0.05). No differences were found with respect to leg stiffness in the uphill or downhill sections (p > 0.05). In the uphill sections, the results suggest lower energy absorption and more favorable net mechanical work at the knee joint for the MP athletes. In the downhill sections, the results suggest that the more efficient motion of the swing leg in the MP athletes could increase momentum in the forward direction and full body center of mass' velocity at toe off, thus optimizing the propulsion phase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Genitrini
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Salzburg, 5400 Hallein-Rif, Austria
| | | | - Thomas Stöggl
- Red Bull Athlete Performance Center, 5303 Thalgau, Austria
| | - Hermann Schwameder
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Salzburg, 5400 Hallein-Rif, Austria
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Drobnič M, Verdel N, Holmberg HC, Supej M. The Validity of a Three-Dimensional Motion Capture System and the Garmin Running Dynamics Pod in Connection with an Assessment of Ground Contact Time While Running in Place. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:7155. [PMID: 37631692 PMCID: PMC10459607 DOI: 10.3390/s23167155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Revised: 08/03/2023] [Accepted: 08/10/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023]
Abstract
A three-dimensional motion capture system (MoCap) and the Garmin Running Dynamics Pod can be utilised to monitor a variety of dynamic parameters during running. The present investigation was designed to examine the validity of these two systems for determining ground contact times while running in place by comparing the values obtained with those provided by the bilateral force plate (gold standard). Eleven subjects completed three 20-s runs in place at self-selected rates, starting slowly, continuing at an intermediate pace, and finishing rapidly. The ground contact times obtained with both systems differed significantly from the gold standard at all three rates, as well as for all the rates combined (p < 0.001 in all cases), with the smallest mean bias at the fastest step rate for both (11.5 ± 14.4 ms for MoCap and -81.5 ± 18.4 ms for Garmin). This algorithm was developed for the determination of ground contact times during normal running and was adapted here for the assessment of running in place by the MoCap, which could be one explanation for its lack of validity. In conclusion, the wearables developed for monitoring normal running cannot be assumed to be suitable for determining ground contact times while running in place.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miha Drobnič
- Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Nina Verdel
- Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, 83125 Östersund, Sweden
| | - Hans-Christer Holmberg
- Department of Health Sciences, Luleå University of Technology, 97187 Luleå, Sweden
- School of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Matej Supej
- Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, 83125 Östersund, Sweden
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10
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Kiernan D, Dunn Siino K, Hawkins DA. Unsupervised Gait Event Identification with a Single Wearable Accelerometer and/or Gyroscope: A Comparison of Methods across Running Speeds, Surfaces, and Foot Strike Patterns. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:s23115022. [PMID: 37299749 DOI: 10.3390/s23115022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Revised: 05/20/2023] [Accepted: 05/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
We evaluated 18 methods capable of identifying initial contact (IC) and terminal contact (TC) gait events during human running using data from a single wearable sensor on the shank or sacrum. We adapted or created code to automatically execute each method, then applied it to identify gait events from 74 runners across different foot strike angles, surfaces, and speeds. To quantify error, estimated gait events were compared to ground truth events from a time-synchronized force plate. Based on our findings, to identify gait events with a wearable on the shank, we recommend the Purcell or Fadillioglu method for IC (biases +17.4 and -24.3 ms; LOAs -96.8 to +131.6 and -137.0 to +88.4 ms) and the Purcell method for TC (bias +3.5 ms; LOAs -143.9 to +150.9 ms). To identify gait events with a wearable on the sacrum, we recommend the Auvinet or Reenalda method for IC (biases -30.4 and +29.0 ms; LOAs -149.2 to +88.5 and -83.3 to +141.3 ms) and the Auvinet method for TC (bias -2.8 ms; LOAs -152.7 to +147.2 ms). Finally, to identify the foot in contact with the ground when using a wearable on the sacrum, we recommend the Lee method (81.9% accuracy).
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Affiliation(s)
- Dovin Kiernan
- Biomedical Engineering Graduate Group, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Kristine Dunn Siino
- Department of Neurobiology, Physiology and Behavior, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - David A Hawkins
- Biomedical Engineering Graduate Group, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
- Department of Neurobiology, Physiology and Behavior, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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Hafer JF, Mihy JA, Hunt A, Zernicke RF, Johnson RT. Lower Extremity Inverse Kinematics Results Differ Between Inertial Measurement Unit- and Marker-Derived Gait Data. J Appl Biomech 2023; 39:133-142. [PMID: 37024103 DOI: 10.1123/jab.2022-0194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2022] [Revised: 11/30/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2023] [Indexed: 04/08/2023]
Abstract
In-lab, marker-based gait analyses may not represent real-world gait. Real-world gait analyses may be feasible using inertial measurement units (IMUs) in combination with open-source data processing pipelines (OpenSense). Before using OpenSense to study real-world gait, we must determine whether these methods estimate joint kinematics similarly to traditional marker-based motion capture (MoCap) and differentiate groups with clinically different gait mechanics. Healthy young and older adults and older adults with knee osteoarthritis completed this study. We captured MoCap and IMU data during overground walking at 2 speeds. MoCap and IMU kinematics were computed with OpenSim workflows. We tested whether sagittal kinematics differed between MoCap and IMU, whether tools detected between-group differences similarly, and whether kinematics differed between tools by speed. MoCap showed more anterior pelvic tilt (0%-100% stride) and joint flexion than IMU (hip: 0%-38% and 61%-100% stride; knee: 0%-38%, 58%-89%, and 95%-99% stride; and ankle: 6%-99% stride). There were no significant tool-by-group interactions. We found significant tool-by-speed interactions for all angles. While MoCap- and IMU-derived kinematics differed, the lack of tool-by-group interactions suggests consistent tracking across clinical cohorts. Results of the current study suggest that IMU-derived kinematics with OpenSense may enable reliable evaluation of gait in real-world settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jocelyn F Hafer
- Department of Kinesiology and Applied Physiology, University of Delaware, Newark, DE,USA
- School of Kinesiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI,USA
| | - Julien A Mihy
- Department of Kinesiology and Applied Physiology, University of Delaware, Newark, DE,USA
| | - Andrew Hunt
- Department of Kinesiology and Applied Physiology, University of Delaware, Newark, DE,USA
| | - Ronald F Zernicke
- School of Kinesiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI,USA
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI,USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI,USA
| | - Russell T Johnson
- Division of Biokinesiology and Physical Therapy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA,USA
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12
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González L, López AM, Álvarez D, Álvarez JC. Estimation of Ground Contact Time with Inertial Sensors from the Upper Arm and the Upper Back. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:2523. [PMID: 36904728 PMCID: PMC10007194 DOI: 10.3390/s23052523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2023] [Revised: 02/08/2023] [Accepted: 02/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Ground contact time (GCT) is one of the most relevant factors when assessing running performance in sports practice. In recent years, inertial measurement units (IMUs) have been widely used to automatically evaluate GCT, since they can be used in field conditions and are friendly and easy to wear devices. In this paper we describe the results of a systematic search, using the Web of Science, to assess what reliable options are available to GCT estimation using inertial sensors. Our analysis reveals that estimation of GCT from the upper body (upper back and upper arm) has rarely been addressed. Proper estimation of GCT from these locations could permit an extension of the analysis of running performance to the public, where users, especially vocational runners, usually wear pockets that are ideal to hold sensing devices fitted with inertial sensors (or even using their own cell phones for that purpose). Therefore, in the second part of the paper, an experimental study is described. Six subjects, both amateur and semi-elite runners, were recruited for the experiments, and ran on a treadmill at different paces to estimate GCT from inertial sensors placed at the foot (for validation purposes), the upper arm, and upper back. Initial and final foot contact events were identified in these signals to estimate the GCT per step, and compared to times estimated from an optical MOCAP (Optitrack), used as the ground truth. We found an average error in GCT estimation of 0.01 s in absolute value using the foot and the upper back IMU, and of 0.05 s using the upper arm IMU. Limits of agreement (LoA, 1.96 times the standard deviation) were [-0.01 s, 0.04 s], [-0.04 s, 0.02 s], and [0.0 s, 0.1 s] using the sensors on the foot, the upper back, and the upper arm, respectively.
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13
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Donahue SR, Hahn ME. Estimation of ground reaction force waveforms during fixed pace running outside the laboratory. Front Sports Act Living 2023; 5:974186. [PMID: 36860734 PMCID: PMC9968876 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2023.974186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 02/15/2023] Open
Abstract
In laboratory experiments, biomechanical data collections with wearable technologies and machine learning have been promising. Despite the development of lightweight portable sensors and algorithms for the identification of gait events and estimation of kinetic waveforms, machine learning models have yet to be used to full potential. We propose the use of a Long Short Term Memory network to map inertial data to ground reaction force data gathered in a semi-uncontrolled environment. Fifteen healthy runners were recruited for this study, with varied running experience: novice to highly trained runners (<15 min 5 km race), and ages ranging from 18 to 64 years old. Force sensing insoles were used to measure normal foot-shoe forces, providing the standard for identification of gait events and measurement of kinetic waveforms. Three inertial measurement units (IMUs) were mounted to each participant, two bilaterally on the dorsal aspect of the foot and one clipped to the back of each participant's waistband, approximating their sacrum. Data input into the Long Short Term Memory network were from the three IMUs and output were estimated kinetic waveforms, compared against the standard of the force sensing insoles. The range of RMSE for each stance phase was from 0.189-0.288 BW, which is similar to multiple previous studies. Estimation of foot contact had an r 2 = 0.795. Estimation of kinetic variables varied, with peak force presenting the best output with an r 2 = 0.614. In conclusion, we have shown that at controlled paces over level ground a Long Short Term Memory network can estimate 4 s temporal windows of ground reaction force data across a range of running speeds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seth R. Donahue
- Bowerman Sports Science Center, Department of Human Physiology, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, United States
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14
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Estimation of gait events and kinetic waveforms with wearable sensors and machine learning when running in an unconstrained environment. Sci Rep 2023; 13:2339. [PMID: 36759681 PMCID: PMC9911774 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-29314-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Accepted: 02/02/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Wearable sensors and machine learning algorithms are becoming a viable alternative for biomechanical analysis outside of the laboratory. The purpose of this work was to estimate gait events from inertial measurement units (IMUs) and utilize machine learning for the estimation of ground reaction force (GRF) waveforms. Sixteen healthy runners were recruited for this study, with varied running experience. Force sensing insoles were used to measure normal foot-shoe forces, providing a proxy for vertical GRF and a standard for the identification of gait events. Three IMUs were mounted on each participant, two bilaterally on the dorsal aspect of each foot and one clipped to the back of each participant's waistband, approximating their sacrum. Participants also wore a GPS watch to record elevation and velocity. A Bidirectional Long Short Term Memory Network (BD-LSTM) was used to estimate GRF waveforms from inertial waveforms. Gait event estimation from both IMU data and machine learning algorithms led to accurate estimations of contact time. The GRF magnitudes were generally underestimated by the machine learning algorithm when presented with data from a novel participant, especially at faster running speeds. This work demonstrated that estimation of GRF waveforms is feasible across a range of running velocities and at different grades in an uncontrolled environment.
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15
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Slemenšek J, Fister I, Geršak J, Bratina B, van Midden VM, Pirtošek Z, Šafarič R. Human Gait Activity Recognition Machine Learning Methods. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:745. [PMID: 36679546 PMCID: PMC9865094 DOI: 10.3390/s23020745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2022] [Revised: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Human gait activity recognition is an emerging field of motion analysis that can be applied in various application domains. One of the most attractive applications includes monitoring of gait disorder patients, tracking their disease progression and the modification/evaluation of drugs. This paper proposes a robust, wearable gait motion data acquisition system that allows either the classification of recorded gait data into desirable activities or the identification of common risk factors, thus enhancing the subject's quality of life. Gait motion information was acquired using accelerometers and gyroscopes mounted on the lower limbs, where the sensors were exposed to inertial forces during gait. Additionally, leg muscle activity was measured using strain gauge sensors. As a matter of fact, we wanted to identify different gait activities within each gait recording by utilizing Machine Learning algorithms. In line with this, various Machine Learning methods were tested and compared to establish the best-performing algorithm for the classification of the recorded gait information. The combination of attention-based convolutional and recurrent neural networks algorithms outperformed the other tested algorithms and was individually tested further on the datasets of five subjects and delivered the following averaged results of classification: 98.9% accuracy, 96.8% precision, 97.8% sensitivity, 99.1% specificity and 97.3% F1-score. Moreover, the algorithm's robustness was also verified with the successful detection of freezing gait episodes in a Parkinson's disease patient. The results of this study indicate a feasible gait event classification method capable of complete algorithm personalization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Slemenšek
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Maribor, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia
| | - Iztok Fister
- Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Maribor, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia
| | - Jelka Geršak
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Maribor, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia
| | - Božidar Bratina
- Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Maribor, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia
| | | | - Zvezdan Pirtošek
- Department of Neurology, University Clinical Centre, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Riko Šafarič
- Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Maribor, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia
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16
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Zandbergen MA, Buurke JH, Veltink PH, Reenalda J. Quantifying and correcting for speed and stride frequency effects on running mechanics in fatiguing outdoor running. Front Sports Act Living 2023; 5:1085513. [PMID: 37139307 PMCID: PMC10150107 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2023.1085513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 02/23/2023] [Indexed: 05/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Measuring impact-related quantities in running is of interest to improve the running technique. Many quantities are typically measured in a controlled laboratory setting, even though most runners run in uncontrolled outdoor environments. While monitoring running mechanics in an uncontrolled environment, a decrease in speed or stride frequency can mask fatigue-related changes in running mechanics. Hence, this study aimed to quantify and correct the subject-specific effects of running speed and stride frequency on changes in impact-related running mechanics during a fatiguing outdoor run. Seven runners ran a competitive marathon while peak tibial acceleration and knee angles were measured with inertial measurement units. Running speed was measured through sports watches. Median values over segments of 25 strides throughout the marathon were computed and used to create subject-specific multiple linear regression models. These models predicted peak tibial acceleration, knee angles at initial contact, and maximum stance phase knee flexion based on running speed and stride frequency. Data were corrected for individual speed and stride frequency effects during the marathon. The speed and stride frequency corrected and uncorrected data were divided into ten stages to investigate the effect of marathon stage on mechanical quantities. This study showed that running speed and stride frequency explained, on average, 20%-30% of the variance in peak tibial acceleration, knee angles at initial contact, and maximum stance phase knee angles while running in an uncontrolled setting. Regression coefficients for speed and stride frequency varied strongly between subjects. Speed and stride frequency corrected peak tibial acceleration, and maximum stance phase knee flexion increased throughout the marathon. At the same time, uncorrected maximum stance phase knee angles showed no significant differences between marathon stages due to a decrease in running speed. Hence, subject-specific effects of changes in speed and stride frequency influence the interpretation of running mechanics and are relevant when monitoring, or comparing the gait pattern between runs in uncontrolled environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marit A. Zandbergen
- Department of Biomedical Signals and Systems, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science, University of Twente, Enschede, Netherlands
- Department of Rehabilitation Technology, Roessingh Research and Development, Enschede, Netherlands
- Correspondence: Marit A. Zandbergen
| | - Jaap H. Buurke
- Department of Biomedical Signals and Systems, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science, University of Twente, Enschede, Netherlands
- Department of Rehabilitation Technology, Roessingh Research and Development, Enschede, Netherlands
| | - Peter H. Veltink
- Department of Biomedical Signals and Systems, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science, University of Twente, Enschede, Netherlands
| | - Jasper Reenalda
- Department of Biomedical Signals and Systems, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science, University of Twente, Enschede, Netherlands
- Department of Rehabilitation Technology, Roessingh Research and Development, Enschede, Netherlands
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17
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Harbour E, van Rheden V, Schwameder H, Finkenzeller T. Step-adaptive sound guidance enhances locomotor-respiratory coupling in novice female runners: A proof-of-concept study. Front Sports Act Living 2023; 5:1112663. [PMID: 36935883 PMCID: PMC10014560 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2023.1112663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Accepted: 02/02/2023] [Indexed: 03/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Many runners struggle to find a rhythm during running. This may be because 20-40% of runners experience unexplained, unpleasant breathlessness at exercise onset. Locomotor-respiratory coupling (LRC), a synchronization phenomenon in which the breath is precisely timed with the steps, may provide metabolic or perceptual benefits to address these limitations. It can also be consciously performed. Hence, we developed a custom smartphone application to provide real-time LRC guidance based on individual step rate. Methods Sixteen novice-intermediate female runners completed two control runs outdoors and indoors at a self-selected speed with auditory step rate feedback. Then, the runs were replicated with individualized breath guidance at specific LRC ratios. Hexoskin smart shirts were worn and analyzed with custom algorithms to estimate continuous LRC frequency and phase coupling. Results LRC guidance led to a large significant increase in frequency coupling outdoor from 26.3 ± 10.7 (control) to 69.9 ± 20.0 % (LRC) "attached". There were similarly large differences in phase coupling between paired trials, and LRC adherence was stronger for the indoor treadmill runs versus outdoors. There was large inter-individual variability in running pace, preferred LRC ratio, and instruction adherence metrics. Discussion Our approach demonstrates how personalized, step-adaptive sound guidance can be used to support this breathing strategy in novice runners. Subsequent investigations should evaluate the skill learning of LRC on a longer time basis to effectively clarify its risks and advantages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Harbour
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, Paris Lodron University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
- Correspondence: Eric Harbour
| | - Vincent van Rheden
- Department of Artificial Intelligence and Human Interfaces, Paris Lodron University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Hermann Schwameder
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, Paris Lodron University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Thomas Finkenzeller
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, Paris Lodron University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
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18
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Uno Y, Ogasawara I, Konda S, Yoshida N, Otsuka N, Kikukawa Y, Tsujii A, Nakata K. Validity of Spatio-Temporal Gait Parameters in Healthy Young Adults Using a Motion-Sensor-Based Gait Analysis System (ORPHE ANALYTICS) during Walking and Running. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 23:s23010331. [PMID: 36616928 PMCID: PMC9823871 DOI: 10.3390/s23010331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Revised: 12/13/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Motion sensors are widely used for gait analysis. The validity of commercial gait analysis systems is of great interest because calculating position/angle-level gait parameters potentially produces an error in the integration process of the motion sensor data; moreover, the validity of ORPHE ANALYTICS, a motion-sensor-based gait analysis system, has not yet been examined. We examined the validity of the gait parameters calculated using ORPHE ANALYTICS relative to those calculated using conventional optical motion capture. Nine young adults performed gait tasks on a treadmill at speeds of 2−12 km/h. The three-dimensional position data and acceleration and angular velocity data of the feet were collected. The gait parameters were calculated from motion sensor data using ORPHE ANALYTICS, and optical motion capture data. Intraclass correlation coefficients [ICC(2,1)] were calculated for relative validities. Eight items, namely, stride duration, stride length, stride frequency, stride speed, vertical height, stance phase duration, swing phase duration, and sagittal angleIC exhibited excellent relative validities [ICC(2,1) > 0.9]. In contrast, sagittal angleTO and frontal angleIC demonstrated good [ICC(2,1) = 0.892−0.833] and moderate relative validity [ICC(2,1) = 0.566−0.627], respectively. ORPHE ANALYTICS was found to exhibit excellent relative validities for most gait parameters. These results suggest its feasibility for gait analysis outside the laboratory setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Uno
- Department of Health and Sport Sciences, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita 565-0871, Osaka, Japan
- ORPHE Inc., Shibuya 151-0053, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Issei Ogasawara
- Department of Health and Sport Sciences, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita 565-0871, Osaka, Japan
- Department of Sports Medical Biomechanics, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita 565-0871, Osaka, Japan
| | - Shoji Konda
- Department of Health and Sport Sciences, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita 565-0871, Osaka, Japan
- Department of Sports Medical Biomechanics, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita 565-0871, Osaka, Japan
| | - Natsuki Yoshida
- Department of Health and Sport Sciences, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita 565-0871, Osaka, Japan
| | | | | | - Akira Tsujii
- Department of Sports Medical Biomechanics, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita 565-0871, Osaka, Japan
| | - Ken Nakata
- Department of Health and Sport Sciences, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita 565-0871, Osaka, Japan
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19
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Zeng Z, Liu Y, Li P, Wang L. Validity and reliability of inertial measurement units measurements for running kinematics in different foot strike pattern runners. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2022; 10:1005496. [PMID: 36582839 PMCID: PMC9793257 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2022.1005496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to assess the validity and reliability of the three-dimensional joint kinematic outcomes obtained by the inertial measurement units (IMUs) for runners with rearfoot strike pattern (RFS) and non-rearfoot strike pattern (NRFS). The IMUs system and optical motion capture system were used to simultaneous collect 3D kinematic of lower extremity joint data from participants running at 12 km/h. The joint angle waveforms showed a high correlation between the two systems after the offset correction in the sagittal plane (NRFS: coefficient of multiple correlation (CMC) = 0.924-0.968, root mean square error (RMSE) = 4.6°-13.7°; RFS: CMC = 0.930-0.965, RMSE = 3.1°-7.7°), but revealed high variability in the frontal and transverse planes (NRFS: CMC = 0.924-0.968, RMSE = 4.6°-13.7°; RFS: CMC = 0.930-0.965, RMSE = 3.1°-7.7°). The between-rater and between-day reliability were shown to be very good to excellent in the sagittal plane (between-rater: NRFS: CMC = 0.967-0.975, RMSE = 1.9°-2.9°, RFS: CMC = 0.922-0.989, RMSE = 1.0°-2.5°; between-day: NRFS: CMC = 0.950-0.978, RMSE = 1.6°-2.7°, RFS: CMC = 0.920-0.989, RMSE = 1.7°-2.2°), whereas the reliability was weak to very good (between-rater: NRFS: CMC = 0.480-0.947, RMSE = 1.1°-2.7°, RFS: CMC = 0.646-0.873, RMSE = 0.7°-2.4°; between-day: NRFS: CMC = 0.666-0.867, RMSE = 0.7°-2.8°, RFS: CMC = 0.321-0.805, RMSE = 0.9°-5.0°) in the frontal and transverse planes across all joints in both types of runners. The IMUs system was a feasible tool for measuring lower extremity joint kinematics in the sagittal plane during running, especially for RFS runners. However, the joint kinematics data in frontal and transverse planes derived by the IMUs system need to be used with caution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziwei Zeng
- School of Exercise and Health, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
| | - Yue Liu
- School of Exercise and Health, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
| | - Pan Li
- School of Exercise and Health, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
| | - Lin Wang
- Key Laboratory of Exercise and Health Sciences (Shanghai University of Sport), Ministry of Education, Shanghai, China,*Correspondence: Lin Wang,
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20
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Suzuki Y, Hahn ME, Enomoto Y. Estimation of Foot Trajectory and Stride Length during Level Ground Running Using Foot-Mounted Inertial Measurement Units. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:s22197129. [PMID: 36236228 PMCID: PMC9573471 DOI: 10.3390/s22197129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2022] [Revised: 09/08/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Zero-velocity assumption has been used for estimation of foot trajectory and stride length during running from the data of foot-mounted inertial measurement units (IMUs). Although the assumption provides a reasonable initialization for foot trajectory and stride length estimation, the other source of errors related to the IMU's orientation still remains. The purpose of this study was to develop an improved foot trajectory and stride length estimation method for the level ground running based on the displacement of the foot. Seventy-nine runners performed running trials at 5 different paces and their running motions were captured using a motion capture system. The accelerations and angular velocities of left and right feet were measured with two IMUs mounted on the dorsum of each foot. In this study, foot trajectory and stride length were estimated using zero-velocity assumption with IMU data, and the orientation of IMU was estimated to calculate the mediolateral and vertical distance of the foot between two consecutive midstance events. Calculated foot trajectory and stride length were compared with motion capture data. The results show that the method used in this study can provide accurate estimation of foot trajectory and stride length for level ground running across a range of running speeds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuta Suzuki
- Research Center for Urban Health and Sports, Osaka Metropolitan University, 3-3-138 Sugimoto, Sumiyoshi, Osaka 558-8585, Japan
- Department of Environmental Physiology for Exercise, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka Metropolitan University, 3-3-138 Sugimoto, Sumiyoshi, Osaka 558-8585, Japan
| | - Michael E. Hahn
- Department of Human Physiology, University of Oregon, 181 Esslinger Hall, 1525 University St., Eugene, OR 97403, USA
| | - Yasushi Enomoto
- Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba 305-8574, Japan
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21
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Glassbrook DJ, Fuller JT, Alderson JA, Wills JA, Doyle TLA. Changes in acceleration load as measured by inertial measurement units manifest in the upper body after an extended running task. J Sports Sci 2022; 40:1467-1475. [PMID: 35675331 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2022.2086520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the behaviour of physiological load measures as well as ground reaction forces (GRF) and acceleration load during a prolonged running task that simulated the running demands of an intermittent team sport. Nineteen males completed a maximal aerobic fitness test and an extended running protocol across two sessions. Participants wore a portable metabolic system, and four inertial measurement units (IMU), one on each foot, the lower back and upper back. GRF were measured via an instrumented treadmill. Change in metabolic, IMU and GRF variables across five blocks during the running protocol were assessed using a one-way repeated measures ANOVA. The running protocol elicited large increases in heart rate and oxygen consumption over time. No statistically significant changes in any peak impact accelerations were observed. Resultant acceleration area under the curve (AUC) increased at the lower and upper back locations but was unchanged at the foot. GRF active peak but not impact peak increased during the prolonged run. The results of this study indicate that the effect of an extended running task on IMU measures of external mechanical load is manifested in the upper body, and is effectively measured by AUC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Glassbrook
- Faculty of Medicine, Health, and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
| | - Joel T Fuller
- Faculty of Medicine, Health, and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
| | | | - Jodie A Wills
- Faculty of Medicine, Health, and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
| | - Tim L A Doyle
- Faculty of Medicine, Health, and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
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22
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Donahue SR, Hahn ME. Validation of Running Gait Event Detection Algorithms in a Semi-Uncontrolled Environment. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:s22093452. [PMID: 35591141 PMCID: PMC9101903 DOI: 10.3390/s22093452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Revised: 04/24/2022] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
The development of lightweight portable sensors and algorithms for the identification of gait events at steady-state running speeds can be translated into the real-world environment. However, the output of these algorithms needs to be validated. The purpose of this study was to validate the identification of running gait events using data from Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs) in a semi-uncontrolled environment. Fifteen healthy runners were recruited for this study, with varied running experience and age. Force-sensing insoles measured normal foot-shoe forces and provided a standard for identification of gait events. Three IMUs were mounted to the participant, two bilaterally on the dorsal aspect of the foot and one clipped to the back of each participant’s waistband, approximating their sacrum. The identification of gait events from the foot-mounted IMU was more accurate than from the sacral-mounted IMU. At running speeds <3.57 m s−1, the sacral-mounted IMU identified contact duration as well as the foot-mounted IMU. However, at speeds >3.57 m s−1, the sacral-mounted IMU overestimated foot contact duration. This study demonstrates that at controlled paces over level ground, we can identify gait events and measure contact time across a range of running skill levels.
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23
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Bogaert S, Davis J, Van Rossom S, Vanwanseele B. Impact of Gender and Feature Set on Machine-Learning-Based Prediction of Lower-Limb Overuse Injuries Using a Single Trunk-Mounted Accelerometer. SENSORS 2022; 22:s22082860. [PMID: 35458844 PMCID: PMC9031772 DOI: 10.3390/s22082860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Revised: 04/02/2022] [Accepted: 04/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Even though practicing sports has great health benefits, it also entails a risk of developing overuse injuries, which can elicit a negative impact on physical, mental, and financial health. Being able to predict the risk of an overuse injury arising is of widespread interest because this may play a vital role in preventing its occurrence. In this paper, we present a machine learning model trained to predict the occurrence of a lower-limb overuse injury (LLOI). This model was trained and evaluated using data from a three-dimensional accelerometer on the lower back, collected during a Cooper test performed by 161 first-year undergraduate students of a movement science program. In this study, gender-specific models performed better than mixed-gender models. The estimated area under the receiving operating characteristic curve of the best-performing male- and female-specific models, trained according to the presented approach, was, respectively, 0.615 and 0.645. In addition, the best-performing models were achieved by combining statistical and sports-specific features. Overall, the results demonstrated that a machine learning injury prediction model is a promising, yet challenging approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sieglinde Bogaert
- Human Movements Biomechanics Research Group, Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium; (S.V.R.); (B.V.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Jesse Davis
- Department of Computer Science, Leuven.AI, KU Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium;
| | - Sam Van Rossom
- Human Movements Biomechanics Research Group, Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium; (S.V.R.); (B.V.)
| | - Benedicte Vanwanseele
- Human Movements Biomechanics Research Group, Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium; (S.V.R.); (B.V.)
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Benson LC, Räisänen AM, Clermont CA, Ferber R. Is This the Real Life, or Is This Just Laboratory? A Scoping Review of IMU-Based Running Gait Analysis. SENSORS 2022; 22:s22051722. [PMID: 35270869 PMCID: PMC8915128 DOI: 10.3390/s22051722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Revised: 02/16/2022] [Accepted: 02/17/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Inertial measurement units (IMUs) can be used to monitor running biomechanics in real-world settings, but IMUs are often used within a laboratory. The purpose of this scoping review was to describe how IMUs are used to record running biomechanics in both laboratory and real-world conditions. We included peer-reviewed journal articles that used IMUs to assess gait quality during running. We extracted data on running conditions (indoor/outdoor, surface, speed, and distance), device type and location, metrics, participants, and purpose and study design. A total of 231 studies were included. Most (72%) studies were conducted indoors; and in 67% of all studies, the analyzed distance was only one step or stride or <200 m. The most common device type and location combination was a triaxial accelerometer on the shank (18% of device and location combinations). The most common analyzed metric was vertical/axial magnitude, which was reported in 64% of all studies. Most studies (56%) included recreational runners. For the past 20 years, studies using IMUs to record running biomechanics have mainly been conducted indoors, on a treadmill, at prescribed speeds, and over small distances. We suggest that future studies should move out of the lab to less controlled and more real-world environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren C. Benson
- Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada; (A.M.R.); (C.A.C.); (R.F.)
- Tonal Strength Institute, Tonal, San Francisco, CA 94107, USA
- Correspondence:
| | - Anu M. Räisänen
- Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada; (A.M.R.); (C.A.C.); (R.F.)
- Department of Physical Therapy Education, College of Health Sciences—Northwest, Western University of Health Sciences, Lebanon, OR 97355, USA
| | - Christian A. Clermont
- Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada; (A.M.R.); (C.A.C.); (R.F.)
- Sport Product Testing, Canadian Sport Institute Calgary, Calgary, AB T3B 6B7, Canada
| | - Reed Ferber
- Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada; (A.M.R.); (C.A.C.); (R.F.)
- Cumming School of Medicine, Faculty of Nursing, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada
- Running Injury Clinic, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada
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25
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Carter JA, Rivadulla AR, Preatoni E. A support vector machine algorithm can successfully classify running ability when trained with wearable sensor data from anatomical locations typical of consumer technology. Sports Biomech 2022:1-18. [PMID: 35045801 DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2022.2027509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 01/05/2022] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Greater understanding of differences in technique between runners may allow more beneficial feedback related to improving performance and decreasing injury risk. The purpose of this study was to develop and test a support vector machine classifier, which could automatically differentiate running technique between experienced and novice participants using only wearable sensor data. Three-dimensional linear accelerations and angular velocities were collected from six wearable sensors secured to current common smart device locations. Cross-validation was used to test the classification accuracy of models trained with a variety of combinations of sensor locations, with participants running at different speeds. Average classification accuracies ranged from 71.3% to 98.4% across the sensor combinations and running speeds tested. Models trained with only a single sensor location still showed effective classification. With the models trained with only upper arm data achieving an average accuracy of 96.4% across all tested running speeds. A post-hoc comparison of biomechanical variables between the two subgroups showed significant differences in upper body biomechanics throughout the stride. Both the methodology used to perform the classifications and the biomechanical differences identified could prove useful when aiming to shift a novice runner's technique towards movement patterns more akin to those with greater experience.
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Davis JJ, Straczkiewicz M, Harezlak J, Gruber AH. CARL: a running recognition algorithm for free-living accelerometer data. Physiol Meas 2021; 42. [PMID: 34883471 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6579/ac41b8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2021] [Accepted: 12/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Wearable accelerometers hold great promise for physical activity epidemiology and sports biomechanics. However, identifying and extracting data from specific physical activities, such as running, remains challenging.Objective. To develop and validate an algorithm to identify bouts of running in raw, free-living accelerometer data from devices worn at the wrist or torso (waist, hip, chest).Approach. The CARL (continuous amplitude running logistic) classifier identifies acceleration data with amplitude and frequency characteristics consistent with running. The CARL classifier was trained on data from 31 adults wearing accelerometers on the waist and wrist, then validated on free-living data from 30 new, unseen subjects plus 166 subjects from previously-published datasets using different devices, wear locations, and sample frequencies.Main results. On free-living data, the CARL classifier achieved mean accuracy (F1score) of 0.984 (95% confidence interval 0.962-0.996) for data from the waist and 0.994 (95% CI 0.991-0.996) for data from the wrist. In previously-published datasets, the CARL classifier identified running with mean accuracy (F1score) of 0.861 (95% CI 0.836-0.884) for data from the chest, 0.911 (95% CI 0.884-0.937) for data from the hip, 0.916 (95% CI 0.877-0.948) for data from the waist, and 0.870 (95% CI 0.834-0.903) for data from the wrist. Misclassification primarily occurred during activities with similar torso acceleration profiles to running, such as rope jumping and elliptical machine use.Significance. The CARL classifier can accurately identify bouts of running as short as three seconds in free-living accelerometry data. An open-source implementation of the CARL classifier is available atgithub.com/johnjdavisiv/carl.
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Affiliation(s)
- John J Davis
- Department of Kinesiology, School of Public Health, Indiana University Bloomington, Bloomington, IN United States of America
| | - Marcin Straczkiewicz
- Department of Biostatistics, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA United States of America
| | - Jaroslaw Harezlak
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Indiana University Bloomington, Bloomington, IN United States of America
| | - Allison H Gruber
- Department of Kinesiology, School of Public Health, Indiana University Bloomington, Bloomington, IN United States of America
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Nijs A, Beek PJ, Roerdink M. Reliability and Validity of Running Cadence and Stance Time Derived from Instrumented Wireless Earbuds. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21237995. [PMID: 34883999 PMCID: PMC8659722 DOI: 10.3390/s21237995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2021] [Revised: 11/20/2021] [Accepted: 11/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Instrumented earbuds equipped with accelerometers were developed in response to limitations of currently used running wearables regarding sensor location and feedback delivery. The aim of this study was to assess test-retest reliability, face validity and concurrent validity for cadence and stance time in running. Participants wore an instrumented earbud (new method) while running on a treadmill with embedded force-plates (well-established method). They ran at a range of running speeds and performed several instructed head movements while running at a comfortable speed. Cadence and stance time were derived from raw earbud and force-plate data and compared within and between both methods using t-tests, ICC and Bland-Altman analysis. Test-retest reliability was good-to-excellent for both methods. Face validity was demonstrated for both methods, with cadence and stance time varying with speed in to-be-expected directions. Between-methods agreement for cadence was excellent for all speeds and instructed head movements. For stance time, agreement was good-to-excellent for all conditions, except while running at 13 km/h and shaking the head. Overall, the measurement of cadence and stance time using an accelerometer embedded in a wireless earbud showed good test-retest reliability, face validity and concurrent validity, indicating that instrumented earbuds may provide a promising alternative to currently used wearable systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anouk Nijs
- Correspondence: (A.N.); (P.J.B.); (M.R.)
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28
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Aristizábal Pla G, Hollville E, Schütte K, Vanwanseele B. The Use of a Single Trunk-Mounted Accelerometer to Detect Changes in Center of Mass Motion Linked to Lower-Leg Overuse Injuries: A Prospective Study. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21217385. [PMID: 34770692 PMCID: PMC8588413 DOI: 10.3390/s21217385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Revised: 10/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Movement dynamics during running was previously characterized using a trunk-mounted accelerometer, and were associated with a history of overuse injuries. However, it remains unknown if these measures are also linked to the development of overuse injuries. The aim of this study was therefore to determine how movement dynamics alter in response to fatigue, and the possible link with developing lower-leg overuse injuries during a six-month follow-up period. Two hundred and eight movement science university students completed a 12-min all-out run while wearing a trunk-mounted accelerometer. Dynamic stability, dynamic loading and spatiotemporal measures were extracted from the accelerometer. Participants sustaining an injury within the 6-month period demonstrated significantly higher RMS ratio values in the vertical direction and lower RMS ratio values in the anteroposterior direction, and lower impact acceleration values in the anteroposterior direction in an unfatigued state compared to the uninjured group. They also demonstrated an increase in dynamic loading in the horizontal plane during the run. In addition, with running fatigue both groups exhibited changes in dynamic stability and loading measures. These results show the potential of using a single trunk-mounted accelerometer to detect changes in movement dynamics that are linked to lower-leg overuse injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerard Aristizábal Pla
- Human Movements Biomechanics Research Group, Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium; (G.A.P.); (E.H.); (K.S.)
- Department of Kinesiology, UMASS Amherst Amherst, University of Massachusetts Integrative Locomotion Lab, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Enzo Hollville
- Human Movements Biomechanics Research Group, Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium; (G.A.P.); (E.H.); (K.S.)
| | - Kurt Schütte
- Human Movements Biomechanics Research Group, Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium; (G.A.P.); (E.H.); (K.S.)
| | - Benedicte Vanwanseele
- Human Movements Biomechanics Research Group, Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium; (G.A.P.); (E.H.); (K.S.)
- Correspondence:
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Jamsrandorj A, Nguyen MD, Park M, Kumar KS, Mun KR, Kim J. Vision-Based Gait Events Detection Using Deep Convolutional Neural Networks. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF THE IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 2021; 2021:1936-1941. [PMID: 34891666 DOI: 10.1109/embc46164.2021.9630431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Accurate gait events detection from the video would be a challenging problem. However, most vision-based methods for gait event detection highly rely on gait features that are estimated using gait silhouettes and human pose information for accurate gait data acquisition. This paper presented an accurate, multi-view approach with deep convolutional neural networks for efficient and practical gait event detection without requiring additional gait feature engineering. Especially, we aimed to detect gait events from frontal views as well as lateral views. We conducted the experiments with four different deep CNN models on our own dataset that includes three different walking actions from 11 healthy participants. Models took 9 subsequence frames stacking together as inputs, while outputs of models were probability vectors of gait events: toe-off and heel-strike for each frame. The deep CNN models trained only with video frames enabled to detect gait events with 93% or higher accuracy while the user is walking straight and walking around on both frontal and lateral views.
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30
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Hutabarat Y, Owaki D, Hayashibe M. Seamless Temporal Gait Evaluation during Walking and Running Using Two IMU Sensors. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF THE IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 2021; 2021:6835-6840. [PMID: 34892677 DOI: 10.1109/embc46164.2021.9629492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
In this study, we proposed a framework for extracting gait events and extensive temporal features, seamlessly, during walking and running on a treadmill by constructing a finite state machine (FSM) transition rules based on two IMU sensors attached to the back of the shoes. Detailed innerclass states were defined to recognize the double support phase on walking gait and the double flight phase on running gait. Further, an in-depth speed-based analysis of temporal gait features can be performed for each tested speed with an automatic speed change detection algorithm based on the moving average filter applied to motion intensity data. The results have demonstrated that the FSM can accurately distinguish walking gait and running gait while also extract a detailed gait phase, respectively. This finding may contribute to a more flexible gait analysis where a change in speed or transition from walk to run can be anticipated and recognized accordingly.
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31
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Singh P, Esposito M, Barrons Z, Clermont CA, Wannop J, Stefanyshyn D. Measuring Gait Velocity and Stride Length with an Ultrawide Bandwidth Local Positioning System and an Inertial Measurement Unit. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21092896. [PMID: 33919056 PMCID: PMC8122515 DOI: 10.3390/s21092896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Revised: 04/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
One possible modality to profile gait speed and stride length includes using wearable technologies. Wearable technology using global positioning system (GPS) receivers may not be a feasible means to measure gait speed. An alternative may include a local positioning system (LPS). Considering that LPS wearables are not good at determining gait events such as heel strikes, applying sensor fusion with an inertial measurement unit (IMU) may be beneficial. Speed and stride length determined from an ultrawide bandwidth LPS equipped with an IMU were compared to video motion capture (i.e., the “gold standard”) as the criterion standard. Ninety participants performed trials at three self-selected walk, run and sprint speeds. After processing location, speed and acceleration data from the measurement systems, speed between the last five meters and stride length in the last stride of the trial were analyzed. Small biases and strong positive intraclass correlations (0.9–1.0) between the LPS and “the gold standard” were found. The significance of the study is that the LPS can be a valid method to determine speed and stride length. Variability of speed and stride length can be reduced when exploring data processing methods that can better extract speed and stride length measurements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pratham Singh
- Biomedical Engineering Graduate Program, Schulich School of Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada; (P.S.); (M.E.)
| | - Michael Esposito
- Biomedical Engineering Graduate Program, Schulich School of Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada; (P.S.); (M.E.)
| | - Zach Barrons
- Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada; (Z.B.); (C.A.C.); (J.W.)
| | - Christian A. Clermont
- Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada; (Z.B.); (C.A.C.); (J.W.)
| | - John Wannop
- Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada; (Z.B.); (C.A.C.); (J.W.)
| | - Darren Stefanyshyn
- Biomedical Engineering Graduate Program, Schulich School of Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada; (P.S.); (M.E.)
- Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada; (Z.B.); (C.A.C.); (J.W.)
- Correspondence:
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32
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Prasanth H, Caban M, Keller U, Courtine G, Ijspeert A, Vallery H, von Zitzewitz J. Wearable Sensor-Based Real-Time Gait Detection: A Systematic Review. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 21:2727. [PMID: 33924403 PMCID: PMC8069962 DOI: 10.3390/s21082727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2021] [Revised: 03/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Gait analysis has traditionally been carried out in a laboratory environment using expensive equipment, but, recently, reliable, affordable, and wearable sensors have enabled integration into clinical applications as well as use during activities of daily living. Real-time gait analysis is key to the development of gait rehabilitation techniques and assistive devices such as neuroprostheses. This article presents a systematic review of wearable sensors and techniques used in real-time gait analysis, and their application to pathological gait. From four major scientific databases, we identified 1262 articles of which 113 were analyzed in full-text. We found that heel strike and toe off are the most sought-after gait events. Inertial measurement units (IMU) are the most widely used wearable sensors and the shank and foot are the preferred placements. Insole pressure sensors are the most common sensors for ground-truth validation for IMU-based gait detection. Rule-based techniques relying on threshold or peak detection are the most widely used gait detection method. The heterogeneity of evaluation criteria prevented quantitative performance comparison of all methods. Although most studies predicted that the proposed methods would work on pathological gait, less than one third were validated on such data. Clinical applications of gait detection algorithms were considered, and we recommend a combination of IMU and rule-based methods as an optimal solution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hari Prasanth
- ONWARD, Building 32, Hightech Campus, 5656 AE Eindhoven, The Netherlands;
- Faculty of Mechanical, Maritime and Materials Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 2, 2628 CD Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Miroslav Caban
- Institute of Bioengineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland; (M.C.); (A.I.)
- ONWARD, EPFL Innovation Park Building C, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland; (U.K.); (J.v.Z.)
| | - Urs Keller
- ONWARD, EPFL Innovation Park Building C, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland; (U.K.); (J.v.Z.)
| | - Grégoire Courtine
- Center for Neuroprosthetics and Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland;
- Department of Neurosurgery, Lausanne University Hospital (CHUV) and University of Lausanne (UNIL), 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Lausanne University Hospital (CHUV) and University of Lausanne (UNIL), 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
- Defitech Center for Interventional Neurotherapies (.NeuroRestore), CHUV/UNIL/EPFL, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Auke Ijspeert
- Institute of Bioengineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland; (M.C.); (A.I.)
| | - Heike Vallery
- Faculty of Mechanical, Maritime and Materials Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 2, 2628 CD Delft, The Netherlands
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Erasmus MC, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Joachim von Zitzewitz
- ONWARD, EPFL Innovation Park Building C, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland; (U.K.); (J.v.Z.)
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Reenalda J, Zandbergen MA, Harbers JHD, Paquette MR, Milner CE. Detection of foot contact in treadmill running with inertial and optical measurement systems. J Biomech 2021; 121:110419. [PMID: 33873111 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2021.110419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2020] [Revised: 03/02/2021] [Accepted: 03/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
In running assessments, biomechanics of the stance phase are often measured to understand external loads applied to the body. Identifying time of initial foot contact can be challenging in runners with different strike patterns. Peak downward velocity of the pelvis (PDVP) has been validated in a laboratory setting to detect initial contact. Inertial measurement units (IMUs) allow measurements of kinematic variables outside laboratory settings. The aim of this study was to validate the PDVP method using an inertial and optical motion capture system to detect initial contact at different speeds and foot strike patterns compared to the force sensing criterion. Twenty healthy runners ran for two minutes at 11, 13, and 15 km/h on a force-instrumented treadmill. 3D kinematics were obtained from an optical motion capture system and an 8-sensor inertial system. A generalized estimating equation showed no effect of footstrike pattern on the time difference (offset) between initial contact based on an inertial or optical system and the force sensing criterion. There was a significant main effect of speed on offset, in which offsets decreased with higher speeds. There was no interaction effect of speed and foot strike pattern on the offsets. Offsets ranged from 21.7 ± 0.2 ms for subjects running at 15 km/h (inertial versus force sensing criterion) to 27.2 ± 0.1 ms for subjects running at 11 km/h (optical versus force sensing criterion). These findings support the validity of the PDVP method obtained from optical and inertial systems to detect initial contact in different footstrike patterns and at different running speeds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasper Reenalda
- University of Twente, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science, Enschede, The Netherlands; Roessingh Research and Development, Enschede, The Netherlands.
| | - Marit A Zandbergen
- Roessingh Research and Development, Enschede, The Netherlands; University of Twente, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Jelle H D Harbers
- University of Twente, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science, Enschede, The Netherlands; Roessingh Research and Development, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Max R Paquette
- School of Health Studies, University of Memphis, Memphis, TN, United States
| | - Clare E Milner
- Department of Physical Therapy & Rehabilitation Sciences, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
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Horsley BJ, Tofari PJ, Halson SL, Kemp JG, Dickson J, Maniar N, Cormack SJ. Does Site Matter? Impact of Inertial Measurement Unit Placement on the Validity and Reliability of Stride Variables During Running: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Sports Med 2021; 51:1449-1489. [PMID: 33761128 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-021-01443-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/26/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Inertial measurement units (IMUs) are used for running gait analysis in a variety of sports. These sensors have been attached at various locations to capture stride data. However, it is unclear if different placement sites affect the derived outcome measures. OBJECTIVE The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to investigate the impact of placement on the validity and reliability of IMU-derived measures of running gait. METHODS Online databases SPORTDiscus with Full Text, CINAHL Complete, MEDLINE (EBSCOhost), EMBASE (Ovid) and Scopus were searched from the earliest record to 6 August 2020. Articles were included if they (1) used an IMU during running (2) reported spatiotemporal variables, peak ground reaction force (GRF) or vertical stiffness and (3) assessed validity or reliability. Meta-analyses were performed for a pooled validity estimate when (1) studies reported means and standard deviation for variables derived from the IMU and criterion (2) used the same IMU placement and (3) determined validity at a comparable running velocity (≤ 1 m·s-1 difference). RESULTS Thirty-nine articles were included, where placement varied between the foot, tibia, hip, sacrum, lumbar spine (LS), torso and thoracic spine (TS). Initial contact, toe-off, contact time (CT), flight time (FT), step time, stride time, swing time, step frequency (SF), step length (SL), stride length, peak vertical and resultant GRF and vertical stiffness were analysed. Four variables (CT, FT, SF and SL) were meta-analysed, where CT was compared between the foot, tibia and LS placements and SF was compared between foot and LS. Foot placement data were meta-analysed for FT and SL. All data are the mean difference (MD [95%CI]). No significant difference was observed for any site compared to the criterion for CT (foot: - 11.47 ms [- 45.68, 22.74], p = 0.43; tibia: 22.34 ms [- 18.59, 63.27], p = 0.18; LS: - 48.74 ms [- 120.33, 22.85], p = 0.12), FT (foot: 11.93 ms [- 8.88, 32.74], p = 0.13), SF (foot: 0.45 step·min-1 [- 1.75, 2.66], p = 0.47; LS: - 3.45 step·min-1 [- 16.28, 9.39], p = 0.37) and SL (foot: 0.21 cm [- 1.76, 2.18], p = 0.69). Reliable derivations of CT (coefficient of variation [CV] < 9.9%), FT (CV < 11.6%) and SF (CV < 4.4%) were shown using foot- and LS-worn IMUs, while the CV was < 7.8% for foot-determined stride time, SL and stride length. Vertical GRF was reliable from the LS (CV = 4.2%) and TS (CV = 3.3%) using a spring-mass model, while vertical stiffness was moderately (r = 0.66) and nearly perfectly (r = 0.98) correlated with criterion measures from the TS. CONCLUSION Placement of IMUs on the foot, tibia and LS is suitable to derive valid and reliable stride data, suggesting measurement site may not be a critical factor. However, evidence regarding the ability to accurately detect stride events from the TS is unclear and this warrants further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin J Horsley
- School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, 115 Victoria Parade, Fitzroy, Melbourne, 3065, Australia.
| | - Paul J Tofari
- School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, 115 Victoria Parade, Fitzroy, Melbourne, 3065, Australia
| | - Shona L Halson
- School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, 115 Victoria Parade, Fitzroy, Melbourne, 3065, Australia.,Sports Performance, Recovery, Injury and New Technologies (SPRINT) Research Centre, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Justin G Kemp
- School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, 115 Victoria Parade, Fitzroy, Melbourne, 3065, Australia
| | - Jessica Dickson
- Library and Academic Research Services, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Nirav Maniar
- School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, 115 Victoria Parade, Fitzroy, Melbourne, 3065, Australia
| | - Stuart J Cormack
- School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, 115 Victoria Parade, Fitzroy, Melbourne, 3065, Australia.,Sports Performance, Recovery, Injury and New Technologies (SPRINT) Research Centre, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Australia
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Einarsson E, Thomson A, Sas B, Hansen CL, Gislason M, Whiteley R. Lower medial hamstring activity after ACL reconstruction during running: a cross-sectional study. BMJ Open Sport Exerc Med 2021; 7:e000875. [PMID: 33782638 PMCID: PMC7957131 DOI: 10.1136/bmjsem-2020-000875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective Anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR) predisposes footballers for subsequent ACL and hamstring (HS) injury. This case series examines HS muscle activation patterns during the running in ACLR patients (bone-patellar tendon-bone (BTB) and (HS) graft) after completion of functional criteria allowing return to training. Methods Electromyography (EMG) recorded from medial and lateral HS bilaterally during treadmill running (12, 14 and 16 km/hour) from 21 male ACLR patients on average 7 months from surgery (5-9) that underwent (HS) (n=12) or BTB reconstruction (n=9) were compared with 19 healthy runners. Main outcome measures: EMG signal was normalised to peak during the running. Pairwise comparisons were made for each muscle group examining stance and swing activation for mean and peak EMG for each patient group and leg. Results Significantly lower relative peak activation in stance (not swing) phase for medial HS was seen for all conditions with effect sizes ranging from −0.63 (controls, BTB non-injured leg) to −1.09 (HS injured). For lateral HS only BTB injured were significantly lower in stance phase (−1.05) Conclusion ACLR patients show neuromuscular alterations during different phases of running. The finding of reduced medial HS activity in stance phase might have implications for knee instability and HS muscle injury on resumption of sport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Einar Einarsson
- Rehabilitation, Aspetar Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine Hospital, Doha, Qatar.,Department of Engineering, University of Reykjavik, Reykjavik, Iceland
| | - Athol Thomson
- Research & Scientific Support, Aspetar Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine Hospital, Doha, Qatar
| | - Bart Sas
- Rehabilitation, Aspetar Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine Hospital, Doha, Qatar
| | - CLint Hansen
- Department of Neurology, Christian-Albrechts Universitat zu Kiel, Kiel, Deutschland, Germany
| | - Magnus Gislason
- Department of Engineering, University of Reykjavik, Reykjavik, Iceland
| | - Rodney Whiteley
- Research & Scientific Support, Aspetar Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine Hospital, Doha, Qatar
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Robberechts P, Derie R, Van den Berghe P, Gerlo J, De Clercq D, Segers V, Davis J. Predicting gait events from tibial acceleration in rearfoot running: A structured machine learning approach. Gait Posture 2021; 84:87-92. [PMID: 33285383 DOI: 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2020.10.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2020] [Revised: 10/05/2020] [Accepted: 10/27/2020] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Gait event detection of the initial contact and toe off is essential for running gait analysis, allowing the derivation of parameters such as stance time. Heuristic-based methods exist to estimate these key gait events from tibial accelerometry. However, these methods are tailored to very specific acceleration profiles, which may offer complications when dealing with larger data sets and inherent biological variability. RESEARCH QUESTION Can a structured machine learning approach achieve a more accurate prediction of running gait event timings from tibial accelerometry, compared to the previously utilised heuristic approaches? METHODS Force-based event detection acted as the criterion measure in order to assess the accuracy, repeatability and sensitivity of the predicted gait events. 3D tibial acceleration and ground reaction force data from 93 rearfoot runners were captured. A heuristic method and two structured machine learning methods were employed to derive initial contact, toe off and stance time from tibial acceleration signals. RESULTS Both a structured perceptron model (median absolute error of stance time estimation: 10.00 ± 8.73 ms) and a structured recurrent neural network model (median absolute error of stance time estimation: 6.50 ± 5.74 ms) significantly outperformed the existing heuristic approach (median absolute error of stance time estimation: 11.25 ± 9.52 ms). Thus, results indicate that a structured recurrent neural network machine learning model offers the most accurate and consistent estimation of the gait events and its derived stance time during level overground running. SIGNIFICANCE The machine learning methods seem less affected by intra- and inter-subject variation within the data, allowing for accurate and efficient automated data output during rearfoot overground running. Furthermore offering possibilities for real-time monitoring and biofeedback during prolonged measurements, even outside the laboratory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pieter Robberechts
- Department of Computer Science, KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200A Box 2402, 3001, Heverlee, Belgium.
| | - Rud Derie
- Department of Movement and Sports Sciences, Ghent University, Watersportlaan 2, 9000, Gent, Belgium.
| | - Pieter Van den Berghe
- Department of Movement and Sports Sciences, Ghent University, Watersportlaan 2, 9000, Gent, Belgium
| | - Joeri Gerlo
- Department of Movement and Sports Sciences, Ghent University, Watersportlaan 2, 9000, Gent, Belgium
| | - Dirk De Clercq
- Department of Movement and Sports Sciences, Ghent University, Watersportlaan 2, 9000, Gent, Belgium
| | - Veerle Segers
- Department of Movement and Sports Sciences, Ghent University, Watersportlaan 2, 9000, Gent, Belgium
| | - Jesse Davis
- Department of Computer Science, KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200A Box 2402, 3001, Heverlee, Belgium
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Agreement of Gait Events Detection during Treadmill Backward Walking by Kinematic Data and Inertial Motion Units. SENSORS 2020; 20:s20216331. [PMID: 33171972 PMCID: PMC7664179 DOI: 10.3390/s20216331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2020] [Revised: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 11/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Backward walking (BW) is being increasingly used in neurologic and orthopedic rehabilitation as well as in sports to promote balance control as it provides a unique challenge to the sensorimotor control system. The identification of initial foot contact (IC) and terminal foot contact (TC) events is crucial for gait analysis. Data of optical motion capture (OMC) kinematics and inertial motion units (IMUs) are commonly used to detect gait events during forward walking (FW). However, the agreement between such methods during BW has not been investigated. In this study, the OMC kinematics and inertial data of 10 healthy young adults were recorded during BW and FW on a treadmill at different speeds. Gait events were measured using both kinematics and inertial data and then evaluated for agreement. Excellent reliability (Interclass Correlation > 0.9) was achieved for the identification of both IC and TC. The absolute differences between methods during BW were 18.5 ± 18.3 and 20.4 ± 15.2 ms for IC and TC, respectively, compared to 9.1 ± 9.6 and 10.0 ± 14.9 for IC and TC, respectively, during FW. The high levels of agreement between methods indicate that both may be used for some applications of BW gait analysis.
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Vanwanseele B, Op De Beéck T, Schütte K, Davis J. Accelerometer Based Data Can Provide a Better Estimate of Cumulative Load During Running Compared to GPS Based Parameters. Front Sports Act Living 2020; 2:575596. [PMID: 33345140 PMCID: PMC7739807 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2020.575596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Running is a popular way to become or stay physically active and to maintain and improve one's musculoskeletal load tolerance. Despite the health benefits, running-related injuries affect millions of people every year and have become a substantial public health issue owing to the popularity of running. Running-related injuries occur when the musculoskeletal load exceeds the load tolerance of the human body. Therefore, it is crucial to provide runners with a good estimate of the cumulative loading during their habitual training sessions. In this study, we validated a wearable system to provide an estimate of the external load on the body during running and investigated how much of the cumulative load during a habitual training session is explained by GPS-based spatiotemporal parameters. Ground reaction forces (GRF) as well as 3D accelerations were registered in nine habitual runners while running on an instrumented treadmill at three different speeds (2.22, 3.33, and 4.44 m/s). Linear regression analysis demonstrated that peak vertical acceleration during running explained 80% of the peak vertical GRF. In addition, accelerometer-based as well as GPS-based parameters were registered during 498 habitual running session of 96 runners. Linear regression analysis showed that only 70% of the cumulative load (sum of peak vertical accelerations) was explained by duration, distance, speed, and the number of steps. Using a wearable device offers the ability to provide better estimates of cumulative load during a running program and could potentially serve as a better guide to progress safely through the program.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benedicte Vanwanseele
- Human Movement Biomechanics, Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | | | - Kurt Schütte
- Human Movement Biomechanics, Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jesse Davis
- Department of Computer Science, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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Fadillioglu C, Stetter BJ, Ringhof S, Krafft FC, Sell S, Stein T. Automated gait event detection for a variety of locomotion tasks using a novel gyroscope-based algorithm. Gait Posture 2020; 81:102-108. [PMID: 32707401 DOI: 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2020.06.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2019] [Revised: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 06/14/2020] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The robust identification of initial contact (IC) and toe-off (TO) events is a vital task in mobile sensor-based gait analysis. Shank attached gyroscopes in combination with suitable algorithms for data processing can robustly and accurately complete this task for gait event detection. However, little research has considered gait detection algorithms that are applicable to different locomotion tasks. RESEARCH QUESTION Does a gait event detection algorithm for various locomotion tasks provide comparable estimation accuracies as existing task-specific algorithms? METHODS Thirteen males, equipped with a gyroscope attached to the right shank, volunteered to perform nine different locomotion tasks consisting of linear movements and movements with a change of direction. A rule-based algorithm for IC and TO events was developed based on the shank sagittal plane angular velocity. The algorithm was evaluated against events determined by vertical ground reaction force. Absolute mean error (AME), relative absolute mean error (RAME) and Bland-Altman analysis was used to assess its accuracy. RESULTS The average AME and RAME were 11 ± 3 ms and 3.07 ± 1.33 %, respectively, for IC and 29 ± 11 ms and 7.27 ± 2.92 %, respectively, for TO. Alterations of the walking movement, such as turns and types of running, slightly reduced the accuracy of IC and TO detection. In comparison to previous methods, increased or comparable accuracies for both IC and TO detection are shown. SIGNIFICANCE The study shows that the proposed algorithm is capable of detecting gait events for a variety of locomotion tasks by means of a single gyroscope located on the shank. In consequence, the algorithm can be applied to activities, which consist of various movements (e.g., soccer). Ultimately, this extends the use of mobile sensor-based gait analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cagla Fadillioglu
- Institute of Sports and Sports Science, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Engler-Bunte-Ring 15, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Bernd J Stetter
- Institute of Sports and Sports Science, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Engler-Bunte-Ring 15, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany.
| | - Steffen Ringhof
- Institute of Sports and Sports Science, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Engler-Bunte-Ring 15, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany; Department of Sport and Sport Science, University of Freiburg, Schwarzwaldstr. 175, 79117 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Frieder C Krafft
- Institute of Sports and Sports Science, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Engler-Bunte-Ring 15, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Stefan Sell
- Institute of Sports and Sports Science, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Engler-Bunte-Ring 15, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany; Joint Center Black Forest, Hospital Neuenbuerg, 75305 Neuenbuerg, Germany
| | - Thorsten Stein
- Institute of Sports and Sports Science, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Engler-Bunte-Ring 15, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
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Fatigue-Related Changes in Running Gait Patterns Persist in the Days Following a Marathon Race. J Sport Rehabil 2020; 29:934-941. [PMID: 31825892 DOI: 10.1123/jsr.2019-0206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2019] [Revised: 07/25/2019] [Accepted: 09/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT The risk of experiencing an overuse running-related injury can increase with atypical running biomechanics associated with neuromuscular fatigue and/or training errors. While it is important to understand the changes in running biomechanics within a fatigue-inducing run, it may be more clinically relevant to assess gait patterns in the days following a marathon to better evaluate the effects of inadequate recovery on injury. OBJECTIVE To use center of mass (CoM) acceleration patterns to investigate changes in running patterns prior to (PRE) and at 2 (POST2) and 7 (POST7) days following a marathon race. DESIGN Pre-post intervention study. SETTING A 200-m oval track surface. PARTICIPANTS Seventeen recreational marathon runners (10 females, age = 34.2 [5.67] y; 7 males, age = 47.41 [15.32] y). INTERVENTION Marathon race. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES An inertial measurement unit was placed near the CoM to collect triaxial acceleration data during overground running for PRE, POST2, and POST7 sessions. Twenty-two features were extracted from the acceleration waveforms to characterize different aspects of running gait. Lower-limb musculoskeletal pain was also recorded at each session with a visual analog scale. RESULTS At POST2, runners reported higher self-reported pain and exhibited elevated peak mediolateral acceleration with an increased mediolateral ratio of acceleration root mean square compared with PRE. At POST7, pain was reduced and more similar to PRE, with runners demonstrating increased stride regularity in the vertical direction and decreased peak resultant acceleration. CONCLUSIONS The observed changes in CoM motion at POST2 may be associated with atypical running biomechanics that can translate to greater mediolateral impulses, potentially increasing the risk of injury. This study demonstrates the use of an accelerometer as an effective tool to detect atypical CoM motion for runners due to fatigue, recovery, and musculoskeletal pain in real-world environments.
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Sapone M, Martin P, Ben Mansour K, Château H, Marin F. Comparison of Trotting Stance Detection Methods from an Inertial Measurement Unit Mounted on the Horse's Limb. SENSORS 2020; 20:s20102983. [PMID: 32466104 PMCID: PMC7288211 DOI: 10.3390/s20102983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2020] [Revised: 05/14/2020] [Accepted: 05/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The development of on-board sensors, such as inertial measurement units (IMU), has made it possible to develop new methods for analyzing horse locomotion to detect lameness. The detection of spatiotemporal events is one of the keystones in the analysis of horse locomotion. This study assesses the performance of four methods for detecting Foot on and Foot off events. They were developed from an IMU positioned on the canon bone of eight horses during trotting recording on a treadmill and compared to a standard gold method based on motion capture. These methods are based on accelerometer and gyroscope data and use either thresholding or wavelets to detect stride events. The two methods developed from gyroscopic data showed more precision than those developed from accelerometric data with a bias less than 0.6% of stride duration for Foot on and 0.1% of stride duration for Foot off. The gyroscope is less impacted by the different patterns of strides, specific to each horse. To conclude, methods using the gyroscope present the potential of further developments to investigate the effects of different gait paces and ground types in the analysis of horse locomotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Sapone
- Université de Technologie de Compiègne, Alliance Sorbonne Université, UMR CNRS 7338 BioMécanique et BioIngénierie, 60200 Compiègne, France; (K.B.M.) ; (F.M.)
- Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, USC INRAE-ENVA 957 BPLC, CWD-VetLab, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France; (P.M.) ; (H.C.)
- LIM France, Chemin Fontaine de Fanny, 24300 Nontron, France
- Correspondence:
| | - Pauline Martin
- Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, USC INRAE-ENVA 957 BPLC, CWD-VetLab, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France; (P.M.) ; (H.C.)
- LIM France, Chemin Fontaine de Fanny, 24300 Nontron, France
| | - Khalil Ben Mansour
- Université de Technologie de Compiègne, Alliance Sorbonne Université, UMR CNRS 7338 BioMécanique et BioIngénierie, 60200 Compiègne, France; (K.B.M.) ; (F.M.)
| | - Henry Château
- Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, USC INRAE-ENVA 957 BPLC, CWD-VetLab, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France; (P.M.) ; (H.C.)
| | - Frédéric Marin
- Université de Technologie de Compiègne, Alliance Sorbonne Université, UMR CNRS 7338 BioMécanique et BioIngénierie, 60200 Compiègne, France; (K.B.M.) ; (F.M.)
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Aubol KG, Milner CE. Foot contact identification using a single triaxial accelerometer during running. J Biomech 2020; 105:109768. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2020.109768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2019] [Revised: 02/19/2020] [Accepted: 03/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Glassbrook DJ, Fuller JT, Alderson JA, Doyle TLA. Foot accelerations are larger than tibia accelerations during sprinting when measured with inertial measurement units. J Sports Sci 2019; 38:248-255. [PMID: 31726955 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2019.1692997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Accelerometers are often placed on the tibia to measure segmental accelerations, and external mechanical load during running. However, in applied sport settings it is sometimes preferable to place accelerometers on the dorsal foot to avoid tibial impact injuries. This study aimed to quantify the differences in accelerations measured at the dorsal foot compared with the distal tibia during running. Sixteen recreationally active participants performed a sprint protocol on a non-motorised treadmill. Accelerometers were positioned bilaterally on the medial tibia (TIBLeft and TIBRight), and bilateral dorsal foot surfaces (DORLeft and DORRight). Continuous acceleration signal waveform analysis was performed using one-dimensional statistical parametric mapping (1DSPM). Resultant accelerations were greater for DORLeft than TIBLeft for 60% of the gait cycle (p < 0.001) and greater for DORRight than TIBRight for 50% of the gait cycle (p < 0.003). The larger accelerations at the dorsal foot than the tibia can be explained by movement at the ankle joint, and the placement location relative to the hip. The dorsal foot location can be used to effectively measure accelerations and external mechanical load when it is not feasible to place the accelerometer on the tibia, however results between the two locations should not be compared.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Joel T Fuller
- Department of Health Professions, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
| | | | - Tim L A Doyle
- Department of Health Professions, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
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