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Ladouce S, Pietzker M, Manzey D, Dehais F. Evaluation of a headphones-fitted EEG system for the recording of auditory evoked potentials and mental workload assessment. Behav Brain Res 2024; 460:114827. [PMID: 38128886 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2023.114827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2023] [Revised: 11/23/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
Advancements in portable neuroimaging technologies open up new opportunities to gain insight into the neural dynamics and cognitive processes underlying day-to-day behaviors. In this study, we evaluated the relevance of a headphone- mounted electroencephalogram (EEG) system for monitoring mental workload. The participants (N = 12) were instructed to pay attention to auditory alarms presented sporadically while performing the Multi-Attribute Task Battery (MATB) whose difficulty was staged across three conditions to manipulate mental workload. The P300 Event-Related Potentials (ERP) elicited by the presentation of auditory alarms were used as probes of attentional resources available. The amplitude and latency of P300 ERPs were compared across experimental conditions. Our findings indicate that the P300 ERP component can be captured using a headphone-mounted EEG system. Moreover, neural responses to alarm could be used to classify mental workload with high accuracy (over 80%) at a single-trial level. Our analyses indicated that the signal-to-noise ratio acquired by the sponge-based sensors remained stable throughout the recordings. These results highlight the potential of portable neuroimaging technology for the development of neuroassistive applications while underscoring the current limitations and challenges associated with the integration of EEG sensors in everyday-life wearable technologies. Overall, our study contributes to the growing body of research exploring the feasibility and validity of wearable neuroimaging technologies for the study of human cognition and behavior in real-world settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Ladouce
- Human Factors and Neuroergonomics, ISAE-SUPAERO, 10 Av. Edouard Belin, Toulouse 31400, Haute-Garonne, France.
| | - Max Pietzker
- Department of Psychology and Ergonomics, Technical University Berlin, Strafte des 17.Juni 135, 10623 Berlin, Berlin, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Dietrich Manzey
- Department of Psychology and Ergonomics, Technical University Berlin, Strafte des 17.Juni 135, 10623 Berlin, Berlin, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Frederic Dehais
- Human Factors and Neuroergonomics, ISAE-SUPAERO, 10 Av. Edouard Belin, Toulouse 31400, Haute-Garonne, France; School of Biomedical Engineering, Science Health Systems, Drexel University, 3141 Chestnut St, Philadelphia 19104, PA, United States
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2
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Zhang J, Li J, Huang Z, Huang D, Yu H, Li Z. Recent Progress in Wearable Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) Devices Based on Electroencephalogram (EEG) for Medical Applications: A Review. HEALTH DATA SCIENCE 2023; 3:0096. [PMID: 38487198 PMCID: PMC10880169 DOI: 10.34133/hds.0096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2023] [Accepted: 10/19/2023] [Indexed: 03/17/2024]
Abstract
Importance: Brain-computer interface (BCI) decodes and converts brain signals into machine instructions to interoperate with the external world. However, limited by the implantation risks of invasive BCIs and the operational complexity of conventional noninvasive BCIs, applications of BCIs are mainly used in laboratory or clinical environments, which are not conducive to the daily use of BCI devices. With the increasing demand for intelligent medical care, the development of wearable BCI systems is necessary. Highlights: Based on the scalp-electroencephalogram (EEG), forehead-EEG, and ear-EEG, the state-of-the-art wearable BCI devices for disease management and patient assistance are reviewed. This paper focuses on the EEG acquisition equipment of the novel wearable BCI devices and summarizes the development direction of wearable EEG-based BCI devices. Conclusions: BCI devices play an essential role in the medical field. This review briefly summarizes novel wearable EEG-based BCIs applied in the medical field and the latest progress in related technologies, emphasizing its potential to help doctors, patients, and caregivers better understand and utilize BCI devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiayan Zhang
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Integrated Circuits, Beijing, China
- National Key Laboratory of Advanced Micro and Nano Manufacture Technology, School of Integrated Circuits,
Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Junshi Li
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Integrated Circuits, Beijing, China
- National Key Laboratory of Advanced Micro and Nano Manufacture Technology, School of Integrated Circuits,
Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Zhe Huang
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Integrated Circuits, Beijing, China
- National Key Laboratory of Advanced Micro and Nano Manufacture Technology, School of Integrated Circuits,
Peking University, Beijing, China
- Shenzhen Graduate School,
Peking University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Dong Huang
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Integrated Circuits, Beijing, China
- National Key Laboratory of Advanced Micro and Nano Manufacture Technology, School of Integrated Circuits,
Peking University, Beijing, China
- School of Electronics,
Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Huaiqiang Yu
- Sichuan Institute of Piezoelectric and Acousto-optic Technology, Chongqing, China
| | - Zhihong Li
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Integrated Circuits, Beijing, China
- National Key Laboratory of Advanced Micro and Nano Manufacture Technology, School of Integrated Circuits,
Peking University, Beijing, China
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3
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Kaongoen N, Choi J, Woo Choi J, Kwon H, Hwang C, Hwang G, Kim BH, Jo S. The future of wearable EEG: a review of ear-EEG technology and its applications. J Neural Eng 2023; 20:051002. [PMID: 37748474 DOI: 10.1088/1741-2552/acfcda] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2023] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 09/27/2023]
Abstract
Objective.This review paper provides a comprehensive overview of ear-electroencephalogram (EEG) technology, which involves recording EEG signals from electrodes placed in or around the ear, and its applications in the field of neural engineering.Approach.We conducted a thorough literature search using multiple databases to identify relevant studies related to ear-EEG technology and its various applications. We selected 123 publications and synthesized the information to highlight the main findings and trends in this field.Main results.Our review highlights the potential of ear-EEG technology as the future of wearable EEG technology. We discuss the advantages and limitations of ear-EEG compared to traditional scalp-based EEG and methods to overcome those limitations. Through our review, we found that ear-EEG is a promising method that produces comparable results to conventional scalp-based methods. We review the development of ear-EEG sensing devices, including the design, types of sensors, and materials. We also review the current state of research on ear-EEG in different application areas such as brain-computer interfaces, and clinical monitoring.Significance.This review paper is the first to focus solely on reviewing ear-EEG research articles. As such, it serves as a valuable resource for researchers, clinicians, and engineers working in the field of neural engineering. Our review sheds light on the exciting future prospects of ear-EEG, and its potential to advance neural engineering research and become the future of wearable EEG technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Netiwit Kaongoen
- Information and Electronics Research Institute, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Jaehoon Choi
- School of Computing, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin Woo Choi
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94304, United States of America
| | - Haram Kwon
- School of Computing, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Chaeeun Hwang
- School of Computing, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Guebin Hwang
- Robotics Program, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Byung Hyung Kim
- Department of Artificial Intelligence, Inha University, Incheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Sungho Jo
- School of Computing, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
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Petrossian G, Kateb P, Miquet-Westphal F, Cicoira F. Advances in Electrode Materials for Scalp, Forehead, and Ear EEG: A Mini-Review. ACS APPLIED BIO MATERIALS 2023; 6:3019-3032. [PMID: 37493408 DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.3c00322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/27/2023]
Abstract
Electroencephalogram (EEG) records the electrical activity of neurons in the cerebral cortex and is used extensively to diagnose, treat, and monitor psychiatric and neurological conditions. Reliable contact between the skin and the electrodes is essential for achieving consistency and for obtaining electroencephalographic information. There has been an increasing demand for effective equipment and electrodes to overcome the time-consuming and cumbersome application of traditional systems. Recently, ear-centered EEG has met with growing interest since it can provide good signal quality due to the proximity of the ear to the brain. In addition, it can facilitate mobile and unobtrusive usage due to its smaller size and ease of use, since it can be used without interfering with the patient's daily activities. The purpose of this mini-review is to first introduce the broad range of electrodes used in conventional (scalp) EEG and subsequently discuss the state-of-the-art literature about around- and in-the-ear EEG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gayaneh Petrossian
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Polytechnique Montréal, Montréal, Québec H3C 3A7, Canada
| | - Pierre Kateb
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Polytechnique Montréal, Montréal, Québec H3C 3A7, Canada
| | | | - Fabio Cicoira
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Polytechnique Montréal, Montréal, Québec H3C 3A7, Canada
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Knierim MT, Bleichner MG, Reali P. A Systematic Comparison of High-End and Low-Cost EEG Amplifiers for Concealed, Around-the-Ear EEG Recordings. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:s23094559. [PMID: 37177761 PMCID: PMC10181552 DOI: 10.3390/s23094559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2023] [Revised: 05/03/2023] [Accepted: 05/04/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Wearable electroencephalography (EEG) has the potential to improve everyday life through brain-computer interfaces (BCI) for applications such as sleep improvement, adaptive hearing aids, or thought-based digital device control. To make these innovations more practical for everyday use, researchers are looking to miniaturized, concealed EEG systems that can still collect neural activity precisely. For example, researchers are using flexible EEG electrode arrays that can be attached around the ear (cEEGrids) to study neural activations in everyday life situations. However, the use of such concealed EEG approaches is limited by measurement challenges such as reduced signal amplitudes and high recording system costs. In this article, we compare the performance of a lower-cost open-source amplification system, the OpenBCI Cyton+Daisy boards, with a benchmark amplifier, the MBrainTrain Smarting Mobi. Our results show that the OpenBCI system is a viable alternative for concealed EEG research, with highly similar noise performance, but slightly lower timing precision. This system can be a great option for researchers with a smaller budget and can, therefore, contribute significantly to advancing concealed EEG research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Thomas Knierim
- Institute of Information Systems & Marketing, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Martin Georg Bleichner
- Neurophysiology of Everyday Life Group, Department of Psychology, University of Oldenburg, 26129 Oldenburg, Germany
- Research Center for Neurosensory Science, University of Oldenburg, 26129 Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Pierluigi Reali
- Department of Electronics Information and Bioengineering, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
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Shivaraja TR, Remli R, Kamal N, Wan Zaidi WA, Chellappan K. Assessment of a 16-Channel Ambulatory Dry Electrode EEG for Remote Monitoring. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:3654. [PMID: 37050713 PMCID: PMC10098757 DOI: 10.3390/s23073654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Revised: 03/10/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Ambulatory EEGs began emerging in the healthcare industry over the years, setting a new norm for long-term monitoring services. The present devices in the market are neither meant for remote monitoring due to their technical complexity nor for meeting clinical setting needs in epilepsy patient monitoring. In this paper, we propose an ambulatory EEG device, OptiEEG, that has low setup complexity, for the remote EEG monitoring of epilepsy patients. OptiEEG's signal quality was compared with a gold standard clinical device, Natus. The experiment between OptiEEG and Natus included three different tests: eye open/close (EOC); hyperventilation (HV); and photic stimulation (PS). Statistical and wavelet analysis of retrieved data were presented when evaluating the performance of OptiEEG. The SNR and PSNR of OptiEEG were slightly lower than Natus, but within an acceptable bound. The standard deviations of MSE for both devices were almost in a similar range for the three tests. The frequency band energy analysis is consistent between the two devices. A rhythmic slowdown of theta and delta was observed in HV, whereas photic driving was observed during PS in both devices. The results validated the performance of OptiEEG as an acceptable EEG device for remote monitoring away from clinical environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theeban Raj Shivaraja
- Department of Electrical, Electronics and System Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Malaysia
| | - Rabani Remli
- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Cheras 56000, Malaysia
- Hospital Canselor Tuanku Muhriz, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Cheras 56000, Malaysia
| | - Noorfazila Kamal
- Department of Electrical, Electronics and System Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Malaysia
| | - Wan Asyraf Wan Zaidi
- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Cheras 56000, Malaysia
- Hospital Canselor Tuanku Muhriz, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Cheras 56000, Malaysia
| | - Kalaivani Chellappan
- Department of Electrical, Electronics and System Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Malaysia
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Dan J, Foged MT, Vandendriessche B, Van Paesschen W, Bertrand A. Sensor selection and miniaturization limits for detection of interictal epileptiform discharges with wearable EEG. J Neural Eng 2023; 20. [PMID: 36630712 DOI: 10.1088/1741-2552/acb231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Objective.The goal of this paper is to investigate the limits of electroencephalography (EEG) sensor miniaturization in a set-up consisting of multiple galvanically isolated EEG units to record interictal epileptiform discharges (IEDs), referred to as 'spikes', in people with epilepsy.Approach.A dataset of high-density EEG recordings (257 channels) was used to emulate local EEG sensor units with short inter-electrode distances. A computationally efficient sensor selection and interictal spike detection algorithm was developed and used to assess the influence of the inter-electrode distance and the number of such EEG units on spike detection performance. Signal-to-noise ratio, correlation with a clinical-grade IEDs detector and Cohen's kappa coefficient of agreement were used to quantify performance. Bayesian statistics were used to confirm the statistical significance of the observed results.Main results.We found that EEG recording equipment should be specifically designed to measure the small signal power at short inter-electrode distance by providing an input referred noise<300 nV. We also found that an inter-electrode distance of minimum 5 cm between electrodes in a setup with a minimum of two EEG units is required to obtain near equivalent performance in interictal spike detection to standard EEG.Significance.These findings provide design guidelines for miniaturizing EEG systems for long term ambulatory monitoring of interictal spikes in epilepsy patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Dan
- Department of Electrical Engineering (ESAT), STADIUS Center for Dynamical Systems, Signal Processing and Data Analytics, KU Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 10, 3001 Leuven, Belgium.,Byteflies, Borsbeeksebrug 22, 2600 Berchem, Belgium
| | - Mette Thrane Foged
- Rigshospitalet, Neurobiology Research Unit, 28 Juliane Maries Vej, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Benjamin Vandendriessche
- Byteflies, Borsbeeksebrug 22, 2600 Berchem, Belgium.,Department of Electrical, Computer, and Systems Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States of America
| | - Wim Van Paesschen
- Department of neurology, UZ Leuven, Herestraat 49, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
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Schroeer A, Andersen MR, Rank ML, Hannemann R, Petersen EB, Rønne FM, Strauss DJ, Corona-Strauss FI. Assessment of Vestigial Auriculomotor Activity to Acoustic Stimuli Using Electrodes In and Around the Ear. Trends Hear 2023; 27:23312165231200158. [PMID: 37830146 PMCID: PMC10588413 DOI: 10.1177/23312165231200158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2023] [Revised: 08/16/2023] [Accepted: 08/23/2023] [Indexed: 10/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Recently, it has been demonstrated that electromyographic (EMG) activity of auricular muscles in humans, especially the postauricular muscle (PAM), depends on the spatial location of auditory stimuli. This observation has only been shown using wet electrodes placed directly on auricular muscles. To move towards a more applied, out-of-the-laboratory setting, this study aims to investigate if similar results can be obtained using electrodes placed in custom-fitted earpieces. Furthermore, with the exception of the ground electrode, only dry-contact electrodes were used to record EMG signals, which require little to no skin preparation and can therefore be applied extremely fast. In two experiments, auditory stimuli were presented to ten participants from different spatial directions. In experiment 1, stimuli were rapid onset naturalistic stimuli presented in silence, and in experiment 2, the corresponding participant's first name, presented in a "cocktail party" environment. In both experiments, ipsilateral responses were significantly larger than contralateral responses. Furthermore, machine learning models objectively decoded the direction of stimuli significantly above chance level on a single trial basis (PAM: ≈ 80%, in-ear: ≈ 69%). There were no significant differences when participants repeated the experiments after several weeks. This study provides evidence that auricular muscle responses can be recorded reliably using an almost entirely dry-contact in-ear electrode system. The location of the PAM, and the fact that in-ear electrodes can record comparable signals, would make hearing aids interesting devices to record these auricular EMG signals and potentially utilize them as control signals in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Schroeer
- Systems Neuroscience and Neurotechnology Unit, Faculty of Medicine, Saarland University and School of Engineering, htw saar, Homburg/Saar, Germany
- Center for Digital Neurotechnologies Saar, Homburg/Saar, Germany
| | | | | | | | - Eline Borch Petersen
- WS Audiology AS, Erlangen, Germany
- Scientific Audiology Department, WS Audiology AS, Lynge, Denmark
| | - Filip Marchman Rønne
- WS Audiology AS, Erlangen, Germany
- Scientific Audiology Department, WS Audiology AS, Lynge, Denmark
| | - Daniel J. Strauss
- Systems Neuroscience and Neurotechnology Unit, Faculty of Medicine, Saarland University and School of Engineering, htw saar, Homburg/Saar, Germany
- Center for Digital Neurotechnologies Saar, Homburg/Saar, Germany
- Key Numerics – Neurocognitive Technolgies GmbH, Saarbruecken, Germany
| | - Farah I. Corona-Strauss
- Systems Neuroscience and Neurotechnology Unit, Faculty of Medicine, Saarland University and School of Engineering, htw saar, Homburg/Saar, Germany
- Center for Digital Neurotechnologies Saar, Homburg/Saar, Germany
- Key Numerics – Neurocognitive Technolgies GmbH, Saarbruecken, Germany
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Searchfield GD, Sanders PJ, Doborjeh Z, Doborjeh M, Boldu R, Sun K, Barde A. A State-of-Art Review of Digital Technologies for the Next Generation of Tinnitus Therapeutics. Front Digit Health 2021; 3:724370. [PMID: 34713191 PMCID: PMC8522011 DOI: 10.3389/fdgth.2021.724370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Digital processing has enabled the development of several generations of technology for tinnitus therapy. The first digital generation was comprised of digital Hearing Aids (HAs) and personal digital music players implementing already established sound-based therapies, as well as text based information on the internet. In the second generation Smart-phone applications (apps) alone or in conjunction with HAs resulted in more therapy options for users to select from. The 3rd generation of digital tinnitus technologies began with the emergence of many novel, largely neurophysiologically-inspired, treatment theories that drove development of processing; enabled through HAs, apps, the internet and stand-alone devices. We are now of the cusp of a 4th generation that will incorporate physiological sensors, multiple transducers and AI to personalize therapies. Aim: To review technologies that will enable the next generations of digital therapies for tinnitus. Methods: A "state-of-the-art" review was undertaken to answer the question: what digital technology could be applied to tinnitus therapy in the next 10 years? Google Scholar and PubMed were searched for the 10-year period 2011-2021. The search strategy used the following key words: "tinnitus" and ["HA," "personalized therapy," "AI" (and "methods" or "applications"), "Virtual reality," "Games," "Sensors" and "Transducers"], and "Hearables." Snowballing was used to expand the search from the identified papers. The results of the review were cataloged and organized into themes. Results: This paper identified digital technologies and research on the development of smart therapies for tinnitus. AI methods that could have tinnitus applications are identified and discussed. The potential of personalized treatments and the benefits of being able to gather data in ecologically valid settings are outlined. Conclusions: There is a huge scope for the application of digital technology to tinnitus therapy, but the uncertain mechanisms underpinning tinnitus present a challenge and many posited therapeutic approaches may not be successful. Personalized AI modeling based on biometric measures obtained through various sensor types, and assessments of individual psychology and lifestyles should result in the development of smart therapy platforms for tinnitus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grant D. Searchfield
- Section of Audiology, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
- Eisdell Moore Centre, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
- Centre for Brain Research, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Philip J. Sanders
- Section of Audiology, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
- Eisdell Moore Centre, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
- Centre for Brain Research, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Zohreh Doborjeh
- Section of Audiology, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
- Eisdell Moore Centre, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
- Centre for Brain Research, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Maryam Doborjeh
- School of Engineering, Computer and Mathematical Sciences, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Roger Boldu
- Augmented Human Laboratory, Auckland Bioengineering Institute, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Kevin Sun
- Section of Audiology, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Amit Barde
- Empathic Computing Laboratory, Auckland Bioengineering Institute, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
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