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Lagasse E, Levin M. Future medicine: from molecular pathways to the collective intelligence of the body. Trends Mol Med 2023; 29:687-710. [PMID: 37481382 PMCID: PMC10527237 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2023.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2023] [Revised: 06/20/2023] [Accepted: 06/22/2023] [Indexed: 07/24/2023]
Abstract
The remarkable anatomical homeostasis exhibited by complex living organisms suggests that they are inherently reprogrammable information-processing systems that offer numerous interfaces to their physiological and anatomical problem-solving capacities. We briefly review data suggesting that the multiscale competency of living forms affords a new path for biomedicine that exploits the innate collective intelligence of tissues and organs. The concept of tissue-level allostatic goal-directedness is already bearing fruit in clinical practice. We sketch a roadmap towards 'somatic psychiatry' by using advances in bioelectricity and behavioral neuroscience to design methods that induce self-repair of structure and function. Relaxing the assumption that cellular control mechanisms are static, exploiting powerful concepts from cybernetics, behavioral science, and developmental biology may spark definitive solutions to current biomedical challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Lagasse
- McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine and Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Michael Levin
- Allen Discovery Center, Tufts University, Medford, MA, USA; Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA, USA.
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2
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Peksa J, Mamchur D. State-of-the-Art on Brain-Computer Interface Technology. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:6001. [PMID: 37447849 DOI: 10.3390/s23136001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Revised: 06/23/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023]
Abstract
This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the state-of-the-art in brain-computer interfaces (BCI). It begins by providing an introduction to BCIs, describing their main operation principles and most widely used platforms. The paper then examines the various components of a BCI system, such as hardware, software, and signal processing algorithms. Finally, it looks at current trends in research related to BCI use for medical, educational, and other purposes, as well as potential future applications of this technology. The paper concludes by highlighting some key challenges that still need to be addressed before widespread adoption can occur. By presenting an up-to-date assessment of the state-of-the-art in BCI technology, this paper will provide valuable insight into where this field is heading in terms of progress and innovation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janis Peksa
- Department of Information Technologies, Turiba University, Graudu Street 68, LV-1058 Riga, Latvia
- Institute of Information Technology, Riga Technical University, Kalku Street 1, LV-1658 Riga, Latvia
| | - Dmytro Mamchur
- Department of Information Technologies, Turiba University, Graudu Street 68, LV-1058 Riga, Latvia
- Computer Engineering and Electronics Department, Kremenchuk Mykhailo Ostrohradskyi National University, Pershotravneva 20, 39600 Kremenchuk, Ukraine
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Gannouni S, Belwafi K, Aledaily A, Aboalsamh H, Belghith A. Software Usability Testing Using EEG-Based Emotion Detection and Deep Learning. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:s23115147. [PMID: 37299873 DOI: 10.3390/s23115147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2023] [Revised: 05/19/2023] [Accepted: 05/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
It is becoming increasingly attractive to detect human emotions using electroencephalography (EEG) brain signals. EEG is a reliable and cost-effective technology used to measure brain activities. This paper proposes an original framework for usability testing based on emotion detection using EEG signals, which can significantly affect software production and user satisfaction. This approach can provide an in-depth understanding of user satisfaction accurately and precisely, making it a valuable tool in software development. The proposed framework includes a recurrent neural network algorithm as a classifier, a feature extraction algorithm based on event-related desynchronization and event-related synchronization analysis, and a new method for selecting EEG sources adaptively for emotion recognition. The framework results are promising, achieving 92.13%, 92.67%, and 92.24% for the valence-arousal-dominance dimensions, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofien Gannouni
- Department of Computer Science, College of Computer and Information Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11543, Saudi Arabia
| | - Kais Belwafi
- Department of Computer Science, College of Computer and Information Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11543, Saudi Arabia
- C2PS Center, Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Department, Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi P.O. Box 127788, United Arab Emirates
| | - Arwa Aledaily
- Department of Computer Science, College of Computer and Information Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11543, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hatim Aboalsamh
- Department of Computer Science, College of Computer and Information Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11543, Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdelfettah Belghith
- Department of Computer Science, College of Computer and Information Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11543, Saudi Arabia
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4
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Mwata-Velu T, Niyonsaba-Sebigunda E, Avina-Cervantes JG, Ruiz-Pinales J, Velu-A-Gulenga N, Alonso-Ramírez AA. Motor Imagery Multi-Tasks Classification for BCIs Using the NVIDIA Jetson TX2 Board and the EEGNet Network. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:4164. [PMID: 37112504 PMCID: PMC10145994 DOI: 10.3390/s23084164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Revised: 04/15/2023] [Accepted: 04/17/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Nowadays, Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCIs) still captivate large interest because of multiple advantages offered in numerous domains, explicitly assisting people with motor disabilities in communicating with the surrounding environment. However, challenges of portability, instantaneous processing time, and accurate data processing remain for numerous BCI system setups. This work implements an embedded multi-tasks classifier based on motor imagery using the EEGNet network integrated into the NVIDIA Jetson TX2 card. Therefore, two strategies are developed to select the most discriminant channels. The former uses the accuracy based-classifier criterion, while the latter evaluates electrode mutual information to form discriminant channel subsets. Next, the EEGNet network is implemented to classify discriminant channel signals. Additionally, a cyclic learning algorithm is implemented at the software level to accelerate the model learning convergence and fully profit from the NJT2 hardware resources. Finally, motor imagery Electroencephalogram (EEG) signals provided by HaLT's public benchmark were used, in addition to the k-fold cross-validation method. Average accuracies of 83.7% and 81.3% were achieved by classifying EEG signals per subject and motor imagery task, respectively. Each task was processed with an average latency of 48.7 ms. This framework offers an alternative for online EEG-BCI systems' requirements, dealing with short processing times and reliable classification accuracy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tat’y Mwata-Velu
- Centro de Investigación en Computación, Instituto Politécnico Nacional (CIC-IPN), Avenida Juan de Dios Bátiz Esquina Miguel Othón de Mendizábal Colonia Nueva Industrial Vallejo, Alcaldía Gustavo A. Madero, Ciudad de Mexico C.P. 07738, Mexico
- Institut Supérieur Pédagogique Technique de Kinshasa (I.S.P.T.-KIN), Av. de la Science 5, Gombe, Kinshasa 3287, Democratic Republic of the Congo; (E.N.-S.); (J.R.-P.)
- Telematics and Digital Signal Processing Research Groups (CAs), Department of Electronics Engineering, Universidad de Guanajuato, Salamanca 36885, Mexico;
| | - Edson Niyonsaba-Sebigunda
- Institut Supérieur Pédagogique Technique de Kinshasa (I.S.P.T.-KIN), Av. de la Science 5, Gombe, Kinshasa 3287, Democratic Republic of the Congo; (E.N.-S.); (J.R.-P.)
| | - Juan Gabriel Avina-Cervantes
- Telematics and Digital Signal Processing Research Groups (CAs), Department of Electronics Engineering, Universidad de Guanajuato, Salamanca 36885, Mexico;
| | - Jose Ruiz-Pinales
- Institut Supérieur Pédagogique Technique de Kinshasa (I.S.P.T.-KIN), Av. de la Science 5, Gombe, Kinshasa 3287, Democratic Republic of the Congo; (E.N.-S.); (J.R.-P.)
| | - Narcisse Velu-A-Gulenga
- Institut Supérieur Pédagogique de Kikwit (I.S.P. KIKWIT), Av Nzundu 2, Com. Lukolela, Kikwit 8211, Democratic Republic of the Congo
| | - Adán Antonio Alonso-Ramírez
- Instituto Tecnológico Nacional de México en Celaya (TecNM-Celaya), Av. Antonio García Cubas Pte 600, Celaya C.P. 38010, Guanajuato, Mexico;
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Penev YP, Beneke A, Root KT, Meisel E, Kwak S, Diaz MJ, Root JL, Hosseini MR, Lucke-Wold B. Therapeutic Effectiveness of Brain Computer Interfaces in Stroke Patients: A Systematic Review. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL NEUROLOGY 2023; 4:87-93. [PMID: 37799298 PMCID: PMC10552326 DOI: 10.33696/neurol.4.077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/07/2023]
Abstract
Background Brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) are a rapidly advancing field which utilizes brain activity to control external devices for a myriad of functions, including the restoration of motor function. Clinically, BCIs have been especially impactful in patients who suffer from stroke-mediated damage. However, due to the rapid advancement in the field, there is a lack of accepted standards of practice. Therefore, the aim of this systematic review is to summarize the current literature published regarding the efficacy of BCI-based rehabilitation of motor dysfunction in stroke patients. Methodology This systematic review was performed in accordance with the guidelines set forth by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis (PRISMA) 2020 statement. PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane Library were queried for relevant articles and screened for inclusion criteria by two authors. All discrepancies were resolved by discussion among both reviewers and subsequent consensus. Results 11/12 (91.6%) of studies focused on upper extremity outcomes and reported larger initial improvements for participants in the treatment arm (using BCI) as compared to those in the control arm (no BCI). 2/2 studies focused on lower extremity outcomes reported improvements for the treatment arm compared to the control arm. Discussion/Conclusion This systematic review illustrates the utility BCI has for the restoration of upper extremity and lower extremity motor function in stroke patients and supports further investigation of BCI for other clinical indications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yordan P. Penev
- ICollege of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Alice Beneke
- ICollege of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Kevin T. Root
- ICollege of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Emily Meisel
- ICollege of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Sean Kwak
- ICollege of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Michael J. Diaz
- ICollege of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | | | | | - Brandon Lucke-Wold
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
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Electroencephalography based emotion detection using ensemble classification and asymmetric brain activity. J Affect Disord 2022; 319:416-427. [PMID: 36162677 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2022.09.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2022] [Revised: 08/07/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Over the past decade, emotion detection using rhythmic brain activity has become a critical area of research. The asymmetrical brain activity has garnered the most significant level of research attention due to its implications for the study of emotions, including hemispheric asymmetry or, more generally, asymmetrical brain activity. This study aimed at enhancing the accuracy of emotion detection using Electroencephalography (EEG) brain signals. This happens by identifying electrodes where relevant brain activity changes occur during the emotions and by defining pairs of relevant electrodes having asymmetric brain activities during emotions. Experimental results showed that the proposed method is highly competitive compared with existing studies of multi-class emotion recognition. These results were improved by processing not the whole EEG signals but by focusing on fragments of the signals, called epochs, which represent the instants where the excitation is maximum during emotions. The epochs were extracted using the zero-time windowing method and the numerator group-delay function.
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Kartsch VJ, Kumaravel VP, Benatti S, Vallortigara G, Benini L, Farella E, Buiatti M. Efficient Low-Frequency SSVEP Detection with Wearable EEG Using Normalized Canonical Correlation Analysis. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:s22249803. [PMID: 36560172 PMCID: PMC9785135 DOI: 10.3390/s22249803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2022] [Revised: 12/07/2022] [Accepted: 12/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Recent studies show that the integrity of core perceptual and cognitive functions may be tested in a short time with Steady-State Visual Evoked Potentials (SSVEP) with low stimulation frequencies, between 1 and 10 Hz. Wearable EEG systems provide unique opportunities to test these brain functions on diverse populations in out-of-the-lab conditions. However, they also pose significant challenges as the number of EEG channels is typically limited, and the recording conditions might induce high noise levels, particularly for low frequencies. Here we tested the performance of Normalized Canonical Correlation Analysis (NCCA), a frequency-normalized version of CCA, to quantify SSVEP from wearable EEG data with stimulation frequencies ranging from 1 to 10 Hz. We validated NCCA on data collected with an 8-channel wearable wireless EEG system based on BioWolf, a compact, ultra-light, ultra-low-power recording platform. The results show that NCCA correctly and rapidly detects SSVEP at the stimulation frequency within a few cycles of stimulation, even at the lowest frequency (4 s recordings are sufficient for a stimulation frequency of 1 Hz), outperforming a state-of-the-art normalized power spectral measure. Importantly, no preliminary artifact correction or channel selection was required. Potential applications of these results to research and clinical studies are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor Javier Kartsch
- Department of Electrical, Electronic, and Information Engineering “Guglielmo Marconi”, University of Bologna, 40136 Bologna, Italy
| | - Velu Prabhakar Kumaravel
- Digital Society Center, Fondazione Bruno Kessler, 38123 Trento, Italy
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences (CIMeC), University of Trento, 38068 Rovereto, Italy
| | - Simone Benatti
- Department of Electrical, Electronic, and Information Engineering “Guglielmo Marconi”, University of Bologna, 40136 Bologna, Italy
- Department of Sciences and Methods for Engineering, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41123 Reggio Emilia, Italy
| | - Giorgio Vallortigara
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences (CIMeC), University of Trento, 38068 Rovereto, Italy
| | - Luca Benini
- Department of Electrical, Electronic, and Information Engineering “Guglielmo Marconi”, University of Bologna, 40136 Bologna, Italy
- Department of Information Technology and Electrical Engineering at ETH Zurich, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - Marco Buiatti
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences (CIMeC), University of Trento, 38068 Rovereto, Italy
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Gannouni S, Belwafi K, Al-Sulmi MR, Al-Farhood MD, Al-Obaid OA, Al-Awadh AM, Aboalsamh H, Belghith A. A Brain Controlled Command-Line Interface to Enhance the Accessibility of Severe Motor Disabled People to Personnel Computer. Brain Sci 2022; 12:brainsci12070926. [PMID: 35884732 PMCID: PMC9313199 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci12070926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2022] [Revised: 07/10/2022] [Accepted: 07/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
There are many applications controlled by the brain signals to bridge the gap in the digital divide between the disabled and the non-disabled people. The deployment of novel assistive technologies using brain-computer interface (BCI) will go a long way toward achieving this lofty goal, especially after the successes demonstrated by these technologies in the daily life of people with severe disabilities. This paper contributes in this direction by proposing an integrated framework to control the operating system functionalities using Electroencephalography signals. Different signal processing algorithms were applied to remove artifacts, extract features, and classify trials. The proposed approach includes different classification algorithms dedicated to detecting the P300 responses efficiently. The predicted commands passed through a socket to the API system, permitting the control of the operating system functionalities. The proposed system outperformed those obtained by the winners of the BCI competition and reached an accuracy average of 94.5% according to the offline approach. The framework was evaluated according to the online process and achieved an excellent accuracy attaining 97% for some users but not less than 90% for others. The suggested framework enhances the information accessibility for people with severe disabilities and helps them perform their daily tasks efficiently. It permits the interaction between the user and personal computers through the brain signals without any muscular efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofien Gannouni
- Department of Computer Science, College of Computer and Information Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11543, Saudi Arabia; (S.G.); (M.R.A.-S.); (M.D.A.-F.); (O.A.A.-O.); (A.M.A.-A.); (H.A.); (A.B.)
| | - Kais Belwafi
- Department of Computer Science, College of Computer and Information Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11543, Saudi Arabia; (S.G.); (M.R.A.-S.); (M.D.A.-F.); (O.A.A.-O.); (A.M.A.-A.); (H.A.); (A.B.)
- Electrical Engineering and Computer Science department, Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi P.O. Box 127788, United Arab Emirates
- Correspondence: or
| | - Mohammad Reshood Al-Sulmi
- Department of Computer Science, College of Computer and Information Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11543, Saudi Arabia; (S.G.); (M.R.A.-S.); (M.D.A.-F.); (O.A.A.-O.); (A.M.A.-A.); (H.A.); (A.B.)
| | - Meshal Dawood Al-Farhood
- Department of Computer Science, College of Computer and Information Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11543, Saudi Arabia; (S.G.); (M.R.A.-S.); (M.D.A.-F.); (O.A.A.-O.); (A.M.A.-A.); (H.A.); (A.B.)
| | - Omar Ali Al-Obaid
- Department of Computer Science, College of Computer and Information Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11543, Saudi Arabia; (S.G.); (M.R.A.-S.); (M.D.A.-F.); (O.A.A.-O.); (A.M.A.-A.); (H.A.); (A.B.)
| | - Abdullah Mohammed Al-Awadh
- Department of Computer Science, College of Computer and Information Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11543, Saudi Arabia; (S.G.); (M.R.A.-S.); (M.D.A.-F.); (O.A.A.-O.); (A.M.A.-A.); (H.A.); (A.B.)
| | - Hatim Aboalsamh
- Department of Computer Science, College of Computer and Information Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11543, Saudi Arabia; (S.G.); (M.R.A.-S.); (M.D.A.-F.); (O.A.A.-O.); (A.M.A.-A.); (H.A.); (A.B.)
| | - Abdelfettah Belghith
- Department of Computer Science, College of Computer and Information Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11543, Saudi Arabia; (S.G.); (M.R.A.-S.); (M.D.A.-F.); (O.A.A.-O.); (A.M.A.-A.); (H.A.); (A.B.)
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Biology, Buddhism, and AI: Care as the Driver of Intelligence. ENTROPY 2022; 24:e24050710. [PMID: 35626593 PMCID: PMC9140411 DOI: 10.3390/e24050710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2022] [Revised: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 05/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Intelligence is a central feature of human beings’ primary and interpersonal experience. Understanding how intelligence originated and scaled during evolution is a key challenge for modern biology. Some of the most important approaches to understanding intelligence are the ongoing efforts to build new intelligences in computer science (AI) and bioengineering. However, progress has been stymied by a lack of multidisciplinary consensus on what is central about intelligence regardless of the details of its material composition or origin (evolved vs. engineered). We show that Buddhist concepts offer a unique perspective and facilitate a consilience of biology, cognitive science, and computer science toward understanding intelligence in truly diverse embodiments. In coming decades, chimeric and bioengineering technologies will produce a wide variety of novel beings that look nothing like familiar natural life forms; how shall we gauge their moral responsibility and our own moral obligations toward them, without the familiar touchstones of standard evolved forms as comparison? Such decisions cannot be based on what the agent is made of or how much design vs. natural evolution was involved in their origin. We propose that the scope of our potential relationship with, and so also our moral duty toward, any being can be considered in the light of Care—a robust, practical, and dynamic lynchpin that formalizes the concepts of goal-directedness, stress, and the scaling of intelligence; it provides a rubric that, unlike other current concepts, is likely to not only survive but thrive in the coming advances of AI and bioengineering. We review relevant concepts in basal cognition and Buddhist thought, focusing on the size of an agent’s goal space (its cognitive light cone) as an invariant that tightly links intelligence and compassion. Implications range across interpersonal psychology, regenerative medicine, and machine learning. The Bodhisattva’s vow (“for the sake of all sentient life, I shall achieve awakening”) is a practical design principle for advancing intelligence in our novel creations and in ourselves.
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Levin M. Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds. Front Syst Neurosci 2022; 16:768201. [PMID: 35401131 PMCID: PMC8988303 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2022.768201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Synthetic biology and bioengineering provide the opportunity to create novel embodied cognitive systems (otherwise known as minds) in a very wide variety of chimeric architectures combining evolved and designed material and software. These advances are disrupting familiar concepts in the philosophy of mind, and require new ways of thinking about and comparing truly diverse intelligences, whose composition and origin are not like any of the available natural model species. In this Perspective, I introduce TAME-Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere-a framework for understanding and manipulating cognition in unconventional substrates. TAME formalizes a non-binary (continuous), empirically-based approach to strongly embodied agency. TAME provides a natural way to think about animal sentience as an instance of collective intelligence of cell groups, arising from dynamics that manifest in similar ways in numerous other substrates. When applied to regenerating/developmental systems, TAME suggests a perspective on morphogenesis as an example of basal cognition. The deep symmetry between problem-solving in anatomical, physiological, transcriptional, and 3D (traditional behavioral) spaces drives specific hypotheses by which cognitive capacities can increase during evolution. An important medium exploited by evolution for joining active subunits into greater agents is developmental bioelectricity, implemented by pre-neural use of ion channels and gap junctions to scale up cell-level feedback loops into anatomical homeostasis. This architecture of multi-scale competency of biological systems has important implications for plasticity of bodies and minds, greatly potentiating evolvability. Considering classical and recent data from the perspectives of computational science, evolutionary biology, and basal cognition, reveals a rich research program with many implications for cognitive science, evolutionary biology, regenerative medicine, and artificial intelligence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Levin
- Allen Discovery Center at Tufts University, Medford, MA, United States
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, United States
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