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Amin B, Rehman MRU, Farooq M, Elahi A, Donaghey K, Wijns W, Shahzad A, Vazquez P. Optimizing Cardiac Wireless Implant Communication: A Feasibility Study on Selecting the Frequency and Matching Medium. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:3411. [PMID: 37050471 PMCID: PMC10098910 DOI: 10.3390/s23073411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Revised: 03/17/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Cardiac wireless implantable medical devices (CWIMD) have brought a paradigm shift in monitoring and treating various cardiac conditions, including heart failure, arrhythmias, and hypertension. One of the key elements in CWIMD is the implant antenna which uses radio frequency (RF) technology to wirelessly communicate and transmit data to external devices. However, wireless communication with a deeply implanted antenna using RF can be challenging due to the significant loss of electromagnetic (EM) signal at the air-skin interface, and second, due to the propagation and reflection of EM waves from different tissue boundaries. The air-skin interface loss of the EM wave is pronounced due to the absence of a matching medium. This paper investigates the EM propagation losses in the human body and presents a choice of optimal frequency for the design of the cardiac implant antenna and the dielectric properties of the matching medium. First, the dielectric properties of all tissues present in the human thorax including skin, fat, muscle, cartilage, and heart are analyzed as a function of frequency to study the EM wave absorption at different frequencies. Second, the penetration of EM waves inside the biological tissues is analyzed as a function of frequency. Third, a transmission line (TL) formalism approach is adopted to examine the optimal frequency band for designing a cardiac implant antenna and the matching medium for the air-skin interface. Finally, experimental validation is performed at two ISM frequencies, 433 MHz and 915 MHz, selected from the optimal frequency band (0.4-1.5 GHz) suggested by our analytical investigation. For experimental validation, two off-the-shelf flexible dipole antennas operating at selected ISM frequencies were used. The numerical and experimental findings suggested that for the specific application of a cardiac implant with a penetration depth of 7-17 cm, the most effective frequency range for operation is within 0.4-1.5 GHz. The findings based on the dielectric properties of thorax tissues, the penetration depth of EM waves, and the optimal frequency band have provided valuable information on developing and optimizing CWIMDs for cardiac care applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bilal Amin
- Smart Sensors Laboratory, College of Medicine, Nursing Health Sciences, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland
- Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland
| | - Muhammad Riaz ur Rehman
- Smart Sensors Laboratory, College of Medicine, Nursing Health Sciences, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland
| | - Muhammad Farooq
- Smart Sensors Laboratory, College of Medicine, Nursing Health Sciences, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland
| | - Adnan Elahi
- Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland
| | - Kevin Donaghey
- Aurigen Medical, Atlantic Technological University (ATU) Innovation Hub, H91 FD73 Galway, Ireland
| | - William Wijns
- Smart Sensors Laboratory, College of Medicine, Nursing Health Sciences, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland
| | - Atif Shahzad
- Smart Sensors Laboratory, College of Medicine, Nursing Health Sciences, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland
- Centre for Systems Modeling and Quantitative Biomedicine, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Patricia Vazquez
- Smart Sensors Laboratory, College of Medicine, Nursing Health Sciences, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland
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Gulletta S, Falasconi G, Cianfanelli L, Centola A, Paglino G, Cireddu M, Radinovic A, D’Angelo G, Marzi A, Sala S, Fierro N, Bisceglia C, Peretto G, Di Muzio N, Della Bella P, Vergara P, Dell’Oca I. Patients with Cardiac Implantable Electronic Device Undergoing Radiation Therapy: Insights from a Ten-Year Tertiary Center Experience. J Clin Med 2022; 11:jcm11174990. [PMID: 36078921 PMCID: PMC9457044 DOI: 10.3390/jcm11174990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Revised: 08/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: The number of patients with cardiac implantable electronic devices (CIEDs) receiving radiotherapy (RT) is increasing. The management of CIED-carriers undergoing RT is challenging and requires a collaborative multidisciplinary approach. Aim: The aim of the study is to report the real-world, ten-year experience of a tertiary multidisciplinary teaching hospital. Methods: We conducted an observational, real-world, retrospective, single-center study, enrolling all CIED-carriers who underwent RT at the San Raffaele University Hospital, between June 2010 and December 2021. All devices were MRI-conditional. The devices were programmed to an asynchronous pacing mode for patients who had an intrinsic heart rate of less than 40 beats per minute. An inhibited pacing mode was used for all other patients. All tachyarrhythmia device functions were temporarily disabled. After each RT session, the CIED were reprogrammed to the original settings. Outcomes included adverse events and changes in the variables that indicate lead and device functions. Results: Between June 2010 and December 2021, 107 patients were enrolled, among which 63 (58.9%) were pacemaker carriers and 44 (41.1%) were ICD carriers. Patients were subjected to a mean of 16.4 (±10.7) RT sessions. The most represented tumors in our cohort were prostate cancer (12; 11%), breast cancer (10; 9%) and lung cancer (28; 26%). No statistically significant changes in device parameters were recorded before and after radiotherapy. Generator failures, power-on resets, changes in pacing threshold or sensing requiring system revision or programming changes, battery depletions, pacing inhibitions and inappropriate therapies did not occur in our cohort of patients during a ten-year time span period. Atrial arrhythmias were recorded during RT session in 14 patients (13.1%) and ventricular arrhythmias were observed at device interrogation in 10 patients (9.9%). Conclusions: Changes in device parameters and arrhythmia occurrence were infrequent, and none resulted in a clinically significant adverse event.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone Gulletta
- Department of Arrhythmology and Cardiac Electrophysiology, San Raffaele Hospital, Via Olgettina 60, 20132 Milan, Italy
- Correspondence:
| | - Giulio Falasconi
- Department of Arrhythmology and Cardiac Electrophysiology, San Raffaele Hospital, Via Olgettina 60, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Cianfanelli
- Department of Arrhythmology and Cardiac Electrophysiology, San Raffaele Hospital, Via Olgettina 60, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Alice Centola
- Centro Cardiologico Monzino, Via Carlo Parea 4, 20138 Milan, Italy
| | - Gabriele Paglino
- Department of Arrhythmology and Cardiac Electrophysiology, San Raffaele Hospital, Via Olgettina 60, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Manuela Cireddu
- Department of Arrhythmology and Cardiac Electrophysiology, San Raffaele Hospital, Via Olgettina 60, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Andrea Radinovic
- Department of Arrhythmology and Cardiac Electrophysiology, San Raffaele Hospital, Via Olgettina 60, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Giuseppe D’Angelo
- Department of Arrhythmology and Cardiac Electrophysiology, San Raffaele Hospital, Via Olgettina 60, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Alessandra Marzi
- Department of Arrhythmology and Cardiac Electrophysiology, San Raffaele Hospital, Via Olgettina 60, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Simone Sala
- Department of Arrhythmology and Cardiac Electrophysiology, San Raffaele Hospital, Via Olgettina 60, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Nicolai Fierro
- Department of Arrhythmology and Cardiac Electrophysiology, San Raffaele Hospital, Via Olgettina 60, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Caterina Bisceglia
- Department of Arrhythmology and Cardiac Electrophysiology, San Raffaele Hospital, Via Olgettina 60, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Giovanni Peretto
- Department of Arrhythmology and Cardiac Electrophysiology, San Raffaele Hospital, Via Olgettina 60, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Nadia Di Muzio
- Department of Arrhythmology and Cardiac Electrophysiology, San Raffaele Hospital, Via Olgettina 60, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Paolo Della Bella
- Department of Arrhythmology and Cardiac Electrophysiology, San Raffaele Hospital, Via Olgettina 60, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Pasquale Vergara
- Department of Arrhythmology and Cardiac Electrophysiology, San Raffaele Hospital, Via Olgettina 60, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Italo Dell’Oca
- Department of Arrhythmology and Cardiac Electrophysiology, San Raffaele Hospital, Via Olgettina 60, 20132 Milan, Italy
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Psenakova Z, Smondrk M, Barabas J, Benova M, Brociek R, Wajda A, Kowol P, Coco S, Sciuto GL. Computational Analysis of a Multi-Layered Skin and Cardiac Pacemaker Model Based on Neural Network Approach. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:6359. [PMID: 36080817 PMCID: PMC9459797 DOI: 10.3390/s22176359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Revised: 08/17/2022] [Accepted: 08/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The presented study discusses the possible disturbing effects of the electromagnetic field of antennas used in mobile phones or WiFi technologies on the pacemaker in the patient's body. This study aims to obtain information on how the thickness of skin layers (such as the thickness of the hypodermis) can affect the activity of a pacemaker exposed to a high-frequency electromagnetic field. This study describes the computational mathematical analysis and modeling of the heart pacemaker inserted under the skin exposed to various electromagnetic field sources, such as a PIFA antenna and a tuned dipole antenna. The finite integration technique (FIT) for a pacemaker model was implemented within the commercially available CST Microwave simulation software studio. Likewise, the equations that describe the mathematical relationship between the subcutaneous layer thickness and electric field according to different exposures of a tuned dipole and a PIFA antenna are used and applied for training a neural network. The main output of this study is the creation of a mathematical model and a multilayer feedforward neural network, which can show the dependence of the thickness of the hypodermis on the size of the electromagnetic field, from the simulated data from CST Studio.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zuzana Psenakova
- Department of Electromagnetic and Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Zilina, Univerzitna 1, 01026 Zilina, Slovakia
| | - Maros Smondrk
- Department of Electromagnetic and Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Zilina, Univerzitna 1, 01026 Zilina, Slovakia
| | - Jan Barabas
- Department of Electromagnetic and Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Zilina, Univerzitna 1, 01026 Zilina, Slovakia
| | - Mariana Benova
- Department of Electromagnetic and Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Zilina, Univerzitna 1, 01026 Zilina, Slovakia
| | - Rafał Brociek
- Department of Mathematics Applications and Methods for Artificial Intelligence, Faculty of Applied Mathematics, Silesian University of Technology, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
| | - Agata Wajda
- Institute of Energy and Fuel Processing Technology, 41-803 Zabrze, Poland
| | - Paweł Kowol
- Department of Mechatronics, Silesian University of Technology, Akademicka 10a, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
| | - Salvatore Coco
- Department of Electrical, Electronics and Informatics Engineering, University of Catania, Viale Andrea Doria 6, 95125 Catania, Italy
| | - Grazia Lo Sciuto
- Department of Mechatronics, Silesian University of Technology, Akademicka 10a, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
- Department of Electrical, Electronics and Informatics Engineering, University of Catania, Viale Andrea Doria 6, 95125 Catania, Italy
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