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Marenco L, Hupalo LE, Andrade NF, de Figueiredo FAP. Machine-learning-aided method for optimizing beam selection and update period in 5G networks and beyond. Sci Rep 2024; 14:20103. [PMID: 39209894 PMCID: PMC11362319 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-70651-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2024] [Accepted: 08/20/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Finding the optimal beam pair and update time in 5G systems operating at mmWave frequencies is time-intensive and resource-demanding. This intricate procedure calls for the proposal of more intelligent approaches. Therefore, this work proposes a machine learning-based method for optimizing beam pair selection and its update time. The method is structured around three main modules: spatial characterization of beam pair service areas, training of a machine learning model using collected beam pair data, and an algorithm that uses the decision function of the trained model to compute the optimal update time for beam pairs based on the spatial position and velocity of user equipment. When the machine learning model is deployed in a network with a single gNB equipped with a 8 × 8 UPA and one UE equipped with a 1 × 2 UPA in an mmWave scenario simulated in NS3, improvements in SINR and throughput up to 407 % , were observed. Improvements are gathered because of a reduction of 85.7 % in beam pair selections because of an increase of approximately 1543 % in the effective time between successive beam pair searches. This method could offer real-time optimization of the beam pair procedures in 5G networks and beyond.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ludwing Marenco
- Instituto Nacional de Telecomunicações-INATEL, Santa Rita do Sapucaí, Brazil.
| | - Luiz E Hupalo
- Instituto Nacional de Telecomunicações-INATEL, Santa Rita do Sapucaí, Brazil
| | - Naylson F Andrade
- Instituto Nacional de Telecomunicações-INATEL, Santa Rita do Sapucaí, Brazil
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Verho S, Chung JY. Design of a Compact and Minimalistic Intermediate Phase Shifting Feed Network for Ka-Band Electrical Beam Steering. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 24:1235. [PMID: 38400396 PMCID: PMC10892646 DOI: 10.3390/s24041235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2024] [Revised: 02/06/2024] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
Intermediate phase shifting is a footprint- and cost-reduction technique for reconfigurable feed networks. These feed networks are utilized in antenna arrays to perform electrical beam steering. In intermediate phase shifting, a phase shifter is shared between two adjacent antennas. Conventionally, antennas only have individual phase shifters. With shared phase shifters, we reduce the number of components and the footprint by 25%. Consequently, this decreases the price and enables designs at millimeter-wave frequencies where space is limited due to frequency-dependent antenna spacing. This intermediate phase shifting is demonstrated by designing a reconfigurable feed network for the Ka-band that generates a continuous phase shift profile for beam steering. Due to the use of varactors and a novel biasing method, it does not require expensive beamformer integrated chips or lumped components for biasing. The feed network is combined with a 4 × 4 antenna array to demonstrate its beam-steering capabilities. The result is a high-density and minimalistic design that fits in a small volume of 25.6 × 25.6 × 0.95 mm3. With this small antenna array, the main beam is steered at ±40∘ broadside, providing full 1D and restricted 2D steering. It is a potential candidate for wireless sensor and mobile networks.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jae-Young Chung
- Department of Electrical and Information Engineering, Seoul National University of Science and Technology, Seoul 01811, Republic of Korea;
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Stamatopoulos I, Koutzoglou I, Karatzidis DI, Zaharis ZD, Lazaridis PI, Kantartzis NV. Efficient Filter Design to Compensate Fabrication Imperfections in 6G Communication Systems. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:9825. [PMID: 38139668 PMCID: PMC10747718 DOI: 10.3390/s23249825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2023] [Revised: 12/05/2023] [Accepted: 12/07/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023]
Abstract
In this paper, we present a consistent methodology for the reliable design of 6G-oriented filters with enhanced endurance to construction imperfections. The systematic formulation does not depend on the filter's operating frequency and employs a robust strategy for obtaining new roots and poles of the filtering function. Essentially, it requires that all the local maxima of the filtering function do not fluctuate beyond the design attenuation levels for a set of predefined roots/poles distortions. To this purpose, two novel algorithms for the derivation of the appropriate filtering functions are developed, in the prior basis, together with a versatile optimization criterion and a heuristic comparison approach that guarantee optimal outcomes. Specifically, the principal idea of the first technique is to accurately extract the roots of the new polynomial from a system of equations on condition that the maximum local peaks of the distorted (due to imperfections) initial polynomial are below a prefixed threshold, such as the unit. Conversely, the second method develops an alternative polynomial, compressed in the amplitude and frequency range, so that a similar prerequisite regarding the maximum local peaks, is satisfied. It is stressed that both methods are fully generalized and may be applied to any polynomial combination, without increasing the overall complexity. The proposed framework is successfully verified in terms of theoretical examples and the numerical simulation of realistic waveguide and mictrostrip line filters, operating at frequencies from 2GHz to 65GHz, which unveil its superiority over existing schemes and implementations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ioannis Stamatopoulos
- Directorate of Transport and Communications of Eastern Thessaloniki, 54655 Thessaloniki, Greece;
| | - Ioannis Koutzoglou
- School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (I.K.); (D.I.K.); (N.V.K.)
| | - Dimitrios I. Karatzidis
- School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (I.K.); (D.I.K.); (N.V.K.)
| | - Zaharias D. Zaharis
- School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (I.K.); (D.I.K.); (N.V.K.)
| | - Pavlos I. Lazaridis
- School of Computing and Engineering, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield HD1 3DH, UK;
| | - Nikolaos V. Kantartzis
- School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (I.K.); (D.I.K.); (N.V.K.)
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Upadhyaya T, Sorathiya V, Al-Shathri S, El-Shafai W, Patel U, Pandya KV, Armghan A. Quad-port MIMO antenna with high isolation characteristics for sub 6-GHz 5G NR communication. Sci Rep 2023; 13:19088. [PMID: 37925589 PMCID: PMC10625610 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-46413-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2023] [Accepted: 10/31/2023] [Indexed: 11/06/2023] Open
Abstract
A four-port MIMO antenna with high isolation is presented. The antenna is primarily envisioned to cover the n48 band of Frequency Range-1 (FR-1) with TDD duplex mode. The engineered antenna has electrical dimensions of 90 × 90 × 1.57 mm3. The size miniaturization of a single antenna unit is achieved through an optimized placement of slots and extended arms. The quad-antennas are then placed orthogonally to achieve antenna diversity. The antenna resonates at 3.56 GHz and 5.28 GHz having 2:1 VSWR fractional bandwidth of 1.82% and 2.12%. The proposed resonator provides 88.34% and 79.28% efficiency at lower and upper bands, respectively. The antenna is an exceptional radiator regarding MIMO diversity performance owing to high inter-element isolation. The values of envelope correlation coefficient < 0.05, channel capacity loss is nearly 0.1 bits/sec/Hz, and total active reflection coefficient is - 24.26. The full ground plane profile aids in high directivity and cross-pol isolation. The antenna exhibits a gain of 4.2 dBi and 2.8 dBi, respectively, justifying intended application requirements. There is a good coherence between simulation and experimental results. The self-decoupled antenna poses its application in 5G and WLAN Communication Applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trushit Upadhyaya
- Electronics and Communication Department, Chandubhai S. Patel Institute of Technology, Charotar University of Science and Technology (CHARUSAT), Changa, 388421, India
| | - Vishal Sorathiya
- Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Parul Institute of Engineering and Technology, Parul University, Waghodia Road, Vadodara, 391760, India
| | - Samah Al-Shathri
- Department of Information Technology, College of Computer and Information Sciences, Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, P.O. Box 84428, 11671, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Walid El-Shafai
- Security Engineering Lab, Computer Science Department, Prince Sultan University, 11586, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Electronics and Electrical Communications Engineering, Faculty of Electronic Engineering, Menoufia University, Menouf, 32952, Egypt
| | - Upesh Patel
- Electronics and Communication Department, Chandubhai S. Patel Institute of Technology, Charotar University of Science and Technology (CHARUSAT), Changa, 388421, India
| | - Killol Vishnuprasad Pandya
- Electronics and Communication Department, Chandubhai S. Patel Institute of Technology, Charotar University of Science and Technology (CHARUSAT), Changa, 388421, India
| | - Ammar Armghan
- Department of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, Jouf University, 72388, Sakaka, Saudi Arabia.
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Carballeira AR, de Figueiredo FAP, Brito JMC. Simultaneous Estimation of Azimuth and Elevation Angles Using a Decision Tree-Based Method. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:7114. [PMID: 37631651 PMCID: PMC10458517 DOI: 10.3390/s23167114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Revised: 08/06/2023] [Accepted: 08/08/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023]
Abstract
This study addresses the problem of accurately predicting azimuth and elevation angles of signals impinging on an antenna array employing Machine Learning (ML). Using the information obtained at a receiving system when a transmitter's signal hits it, a Decision Tree (DT) model is trained to estimate azimuth and elevation angles simultaneously. Simulation results demonstrate the robustness of the proposed DT-based method, showcasing its ability to predict the Direction of Arrival (DOA) in diverse conditions beyond the ones present in the training dataset, i.e., the results display the model's generalization capability. Additionally, the comparative analysis reveals that DT-based DOA estimation outperforms the state-of-the-art MUltiple SIgnal Classification (MUSIC) algorithm. Our results demonstrate an average reduction of over 90% in the prediction error and 50% in the prediction time achieved by our proposal when compared to the MUSIC algorithm. These results establish DTs as competitive alternatives for DOA estimation in signal reception systems.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Felipe A. P. de Figueiredo
- National Institute of Telecommunications INATEL, Av. João de Camargo, 510-Centro, Santa Rita do Sapucaí 37540-000, MG, Brazil (J.M.C.B.)
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Brilhante DDS, Manjarres JC, Moreira R, de Oliveira Veiga L, de Rezende JF, Müller F, Klautau A, Leonel Mendes L, P de Figueiredo FA. A Literature Survey on AI-Aided Beamforming and Beam Management for 5G and 6G Systems. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:s23094359. [PMID: 37177563 PMCID: PMC10181570 DOI: 10.3390/s23094359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2023] [Revised: 04/21/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Modern wireless communication systems rely heavily on multiple antennas and their corresponding signal processing to achieve optimal performance. As 5G and 6G networks emerge, beamforming and beam management become increasingly complex due to factors such as user mobility, a higher number of antennas, and the adoption of elevated frequencies. Artificial intelligence, specifically machine learning, offers a valuable solution to mitigate this complexity and minimize the overhead associated with beam management and selection, all while maintaining system performance. Despite growing interest in AI-assisted beamforming, beam management, and selection, a comprehensive collection of datasets and benchmarks remains scarce. Furthermore, identifying the most-suitable algorithm for a given scenario remains an open question. This article aimed to provide an exhaustive survey of the subject, highlighting unresolved issues and potential directions for future developments. The discussion encompasses the architectural and signal processing aspects of contemporary beamforming, beam management, and selection. In addition, the article examines various communication challenges and their respective solutions, considering approaches such as centralized/decentralized, supervised/unsupervised, semi-supervised, active, federated, and reinforcement learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davi da Silva Brilhante
- Laboratory for Modeling, Analysis, and Development of Networks and Computer Systems (LAND), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941-901, RJ, Brazil
| | - Joanna Carolina Manjarres
- Laboratory for Modeling, Analysis, and Development of Networks and Computer Systems (LAND), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941-901, RJ, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo Moreira
- Institute of Exact and Technological Sciences (IEP), Federal University of Viçosa (UFV), Rio Paranaíba 38810-000, MG, Brazil
| | - Lucas de Oliveira Veiga
- Institute of Systems Engineering and Information Technology, Federal University of Itajubá, Itajubá 37500-903, MG, Brazil
| | - José F de Rezende
- Laboratory for Modeling, Analysis, and Development of Networks and Computer Systems (LAND), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941-901, RJ, Brazil
| | - Francisco Müller
- LASSE-5G and IoT Research Group, Federal University of Pará (UFPA), Belém 66075-110, PA, Brazil
| | - Aldebaro Klautau
- LASSE-5G and IoT Research Group, Federal University of Pará (UFPA), Belém 66075-110, PA, Brazil
| | - Luciano Leonel Mendes
- National Institute of Telecommunications (INATEL), Santa Rita do Sapucaí 37540-000, MG, Brazil
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Besjedica T, Fertalj K, Lipovac V, Zakarija I. Evolution of Hybrid LiFi-WiFi Networks: A Survey. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:s23094252. [PMID: 37177456 PMCID: PMC10181365 DOI: 10.3390/s23094252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2023] [Revised: 04/19/2023] [Accepted: 04/23/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Given the growing number of devices and their need for internet access, researchers are focusing on integrating various network technologies. Concerning indoor wireless services, a promising approach in this regard is to combine light fidelity (LiFi) and wireless fidelity (WiFi) technologies into a hybrid LiFi and WiFi network (HLWNet). Such a network benefits from LiFi's distinct capability for high-speed data transmission and from the wide radio coverage offered by WiFi technologies. In this paper, we describe the framework for the HWLNet architecture, providing an overview of the handover methods used in HLWNets and presenting the basic architecture of hybrid LiFi/WiFi networks, optimization of cell deployment, relevant modulation schemes, illumination constraints, and backhaul device design. The survey also reviews the performance and recent achievements of HLWNets compared to legacy networks with an emphasis on signal to noise and interference ratio (SINR), spectral and power efficiency, and quality of service (QoS). In addition, user behaviour is discussed, considering interference in a LiFi channel is due to user movement, handover frequency, and load balancing. Furthermore, recent advances in indoor positioning and the security of hybrid networks are presented, and finally, directions of the hybrid network's evolution in the foreseeable future are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toni Besjedica
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Dubrovnik, 20 000 Dubrovnik, Croatia
| | - Krešimir Fertalj
- Department of Applied Computing, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computing, University of Zagreb, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Vlatko Lipovac
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Dubrovnik, 20 000 Dubrovnik, Croatia
| | - Ivona Zakarija
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Dubrovnik, 20 000 Dubrovnik, Croatia
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