Analysis of Particulate Matter Concentration Variability and Origin in Selected Urban Areas in Poland

Application of individual and integrated pollution indices of trace elements to evaluate the noise barrier impact on the soil environment in Wrocław (Poland)

Trace elements emitted by road transport cause long-term contamination of road soils. This study showed the effect of the noise barrier on the spatial distribution of metals in soils at the City Centre Ring Road in Wrocław (Poland). Samples were taken along the barrier every 150 m and across the screen at distances of 0.5, 2.5, 5 (only on the left side), 10, 20, and 50 m from the noise screen on both sides of road no. 5. The contamination of soils was assessed with the use of commonly used individual pollution indices, integrated pollution indices based on the PI index or metal concentrations, and a potential ecological risk index (RI). The geoaccumulation index (Igeo) and the single pollution index (PI) indicate moderate contamination of soils by Cu, Pb, and Zn at most measuring points. The significant risk was reported from Cd in all samples. Integrated pollution indices, especially the PI_Nemerow, PI_avg, and RI confirm the poor quality of studied soils. The presence of elements in soil is related to anthropogenic factors. The spatial distribution of pollution indices and results of statistical analysis (HCA) indicate that Cr and Ni are of natural origin. Remaining elements (Cd, Pb, Cu, Zn) are of mixed origin with a large share from car transport (the significant Spearman's correlation coefficients). In the case of cadmium, dendograms suggest the existence of an additional anthropogenic source, which is also confirmed by moderately strong correlations of this element with other metals.

Is Poland at risk of urban road dust? Comparison studies on mutagenicity of dust

Depopulation concerns many polish cities, with the exception of a few metropolises such as Wrocław (Lower Silesia) and Katowice (Upper Silesia) where investments are growing and therefore more humans are exposed to urban environmental pollution. Accumulation of toxic substances on road surfaces is a major global challenge requiring methods of assessing risk that initiate the proper management strategies. In this study urban road dust (URD) has been collected at seventeen sites in Lower and Upper Silesia regions in Poland renowned for their elevated level of pollution. The aim of the study was: (i) to determine PAH concentration in URD in both regions with the identification of their possible sources based on diagnostic ratio; (ii) to assess possible mutagenic effects of URD with the application of Ames test (Salmonella assay); (iii) to define a possible carcinogenic risk related to URD in both studied regions. We found that the total PAH content of collected URD samples ranged from 142.4 to 1349.4 ng g^-1. The diagnostic ratio of PAHs in URD for all studied sites showed that pyrogenic combustion predominated indicating traffic-related and biomass sources of pollution. The Ames assay, which has never been used in studies of URD in Poland, demonstrated that in both regions, URD samples (from eight sites), were characterised by the highest mutagenicity values. Additionally, Incremental Lifetime Cancer Risk (ILCR) values, based on PAH content only, were between 10 and 6 to 10-4 indicating potential risk of cancer. Reassuming, humans in both agglomerations are exposed to factors or compounds with carcinogenic properties which may have an adverse health effect through the urban road dust mainly due to vehicular traffic, heating systems and industrial activities.

Properties of Particulate Matter in the Air of the Wieliczka Salt Mine and Related Health Benefits for Tourists

This study aimed to evaluate the mass concentration of size-resolved (PM1, PM2.5, PM4, PM10, PM100) particulate matter (PM) in the Wieliczka Salt Mine located in southern Poland, compare them with the concentrations of the same PM fractions in the atmospheric air, and estimate the dose of dry salt aerosol inhaled by the mine visitors. Measurements were conducted for 2 h a day, simultaneously inside (tourist route, passage to the health resort, health resort) and outside the mine (duty-room), for three days in the summer of 2017 using DustTrak DRX devices (optical method). The highest average PM concentrations were recorded on the tourist route (54-81 µg/m3), while the lowest was in the passage to the health resort (49-62 µg/m3). At the same time, the mean outdoor PM concentrations were 14-20 µg/m3. Fine particles constituting the majority of PM mass (68-80%) in the mine originated from internal sources, while the presence of coarse particles was associated with tourist traffic. High PM deposition factors in the respiratory tract of children and adults estimated for particular mine chambers (0.58-0.70), the predominance of respirable particles in PM mass, and the high content of NaCl in PM composition indicate high health benefits for mine visitors.

Origin, distribution, and perspective health benefits of particulate matter in the air of underground salt mine: a case study from Bochnia, Poland

The composition and distribution of airborne particles in different locations in a salt mine were determined in terms of their origin, the distance from the air inlet, and the adaptation of post-mining chambers and corridors for tourists and general audience. The composition of aerosols in air was also evaluated from the perspective of human health. Air samples were collected on filters by using portable air pumps, in a historical underground salt mine in Bochnia (Poland), which is currently a touristic and recreation attraction and sanatorium. The particulate matter (PM) concentration was determined using the gravimetric method by weighing quartz filters. The content of carbon, water-soluble constituents, trace elements, and minerals was also determined. A genetic classification of the suspended matter was proposed and comprised three groups: geogenic (fragments of rock salt and associated minerals from the deposit), anthropogenic (carbon-bearing particles from tourist traffic and small amounts of fly ash, soot, and rust), and biogenic particles (occasional pollen). The total PM concentration in air varied between 21 and 79 μg/m³ (with PM₄ constituting 4-24 μg/m³). The amount of atmospheric dust components coming from the surface was low and decreased with the distance from the intake shaft, thus indicating the self-cleaning process. NaCl dominated the water-soluble constituents, while Fe, Al, Ag, Mn, and Zn dominated the trace elements, with the concentration of majority of them below 30 ng/m³. These metals are released into air from both natural sources and the wear or/and corrosion of mining and tourists facilities in the underground functional space. No potentially toxic elements or constituents were detected. The presence of salt particles and salty spray in the atmosphere of salt mine, which may have anti-inflammatory and antiallergic properties, is beneficial to human health. This study will allow for a broader look at the potential of halotherapy in underground salt mines from a medical and regulatory point of view.

3D Spatial Analysis of Particulate Matter (PM10, PM2.5 and PM1.0) and Gaseous Pollutants (H2S, SO2 and VOC) in Urban Areas Surrounding a Large Heat and Power Plant

In many regions of the world, the winter period is a time of poor air quality, due primarily to the increased use of individual and district heating systems. As a consequence, the atmospheric air contains increased concentrations of both particulate matter and gaseous pollutants (as a result of “low” emissions at altitudes of up to 40 m and “high” emissions more than 40 m above ground level). In winter, the increased pollution is very often exacerbated by meteorological conditions, including air temperature, pressure, air speed, wind direction, and thermal inversion. Here, we analyze the concentrations of particulate matter (PM10, PM2.5, and PM1.0) and gaseous pollutants (H2S, SO2, and VOC) in the immediate vicinity of a large solid fuel-fired heat and power plant located in an urban agglomeration. Two locations were selected for analysis. The first was close to an air quality measurement station in the center of a multi-family housing estate. The second was the intersection of two main communication routes. To determine the impact of “low” and “high” emissions on air quality, the selected pollutants were measured at heights of between 2 and 50 m using an unmanned aerial vehicle. The results were compared with permissible standards for the concentration of pollutants. Temperature inversion was found to have a strong influence on the level of pollutants at various heights, with higher concentrations of particulate matter registered at altitudes above 40 m. The source of PM, H2S, and SO2 pollutants was confirmed to be “low emission” from local transport, industrial plant areas, and the housing estate comprising detached houses located in the vicinity of the measuring points. “High emission” was found to be responsible for the high concentrations of VOC at altitudes of more than 40 m above the intersection and in the area of the housing estate.

Assessment of the Variability of Air Pollutant Concentrations at Industrial, Traffic and Urban Background Stations in Krakow (Poland) Using Statistical Methods

In cities with an extensive air quality monitoring (AQM) system, the results of pollutant concentration measurements obtained in this system can be used not only for current assessments of air pollution, but also for analyzes aimed at better identification of factors influencing the air quality and for tracking trends in changes taking place in this regard. This can be achieved with the use of statistical methods that allow for the assessment of the variability of measurement data observed at stations of various types and for the determination of possible interdependencies between these data. In this article, an analysis of this type was carried out for traffic, urban background and industrial AQM stations in Krakow (Southern Poland) operating in the years 2017–2018 with the use of, i.a., cluster analyzes, as well as dependent samples t-test and Wilcoxon signed-rank test, taking into account the concentrations of air pollutants such as fine particulate matter (PM10), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), benzene (C6H6) and sulfur dioxide (SO2). On the basis of the conducted analyzes, similarities and differences were shown between the data observed at individual types of stations, and the possibilities of using them to identify the causes of the observed changes and the effects of remedial actions to improve air quality undertaken recently and planned in the future were indicated. It was found that the air concentrations of some substances measured at these stations can be used to assess the emission abatement effects in road transport (NO2, PM10 or C6H6), residential heating (PM10 or SO2), and selective industrial plants (SO2, NO2 or C6H6).

Impact of Municipal, Road Traffic, and Natural Sources on PM10: The Hourly Variability at a Rural Site in Poland

The paper presents data from a monthly campaign studying the elemental composition of PM10, as measured by a specific receptor in Kotórz Mały (Opole Voivodeship)—located in the vicinity of a moderately inhabited rural area—measured in one-hour samples using a Horiba PX-375 analyzer. The hourly variability of SO2, NO, NO2, CO, and O3 concentrations, as well as the variability of meteorological parameters, was also determined. On average, during the entire measurement period, the elements related to PM10 can be arranged in the following order: As < V < Ni < Pb < Cr < Mn < Cu < Ti < Zn < K < Fe < Ca < Al < Si < S. Trace elements, including toxic elements—such as As, V, Ni, Pb, Cr, and Mn—were present in low concentrations, not exceeding 10 ng/m3 (average daily value). These elements had fairly even concentrations, both daily and hourly. The concentrations of the main elements in the PM10, as measured by the receptor, are subject to strong hourly changes related not only to changes in the structures of the sources identified in the statistical analysis, but also to wind speed and direction changes (soil and sand particle pick-up and inflow of pollutants from coal combustion). It has been shown that the transport emissions measured by the receptor can have an intense effect on PM10 in the afternoon.

Site environment type - The main factor of urban road dust toxicity?

The main objective of the study was to determine the effects of the water extracts of urban road dust (URD) samples on the growth inhibition and mortality rate of Heterocypris incongruens in various site environment type. We collected 24 samples of the road dust close to highways, main roads, crossroads as well as at other places i.e. residential area, and suburbs. We determined the selected metals (Al, As, Ba, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Ga, Mg, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Rb, Sr, Ti, Tl, V and Zn) content of the water extracts of these samples as well as we tested the toxicity of the water extracts of URD samples using a commercial test Ostracodtoxkit F. We observed the lowest values of the growth inhibition of H. incongruens for residential areas and suburbs (<50%). The highest growth inhibition we found for water extracts of URD samples collected at the main roads in the Katowice urban area and crossroads in the urban areas. Although the mortality and growth inhibition of H. incongruens were related to the road traffic emissions it was impossible to clearly relate this finding with the urban site category.

Strongly and Loosely Bound Water in Ambient Particulate Matter—Qualitative and Quantitative Determination by Karl Fischer Coulometric Method

Simple physical characterization of water evaporation can provide detailed information regarding its component distribution in particulate matter (PM) samples. The water presence in PM can greatly influence its polarity and subsequent reaction activity, for example, in secondary inorganic and organic matter formation. In this study, the presence of PM-bound water is detected using the Karl Fischer titration method in a temperature gradient with an aim to quantitatively assess different types of water occurrence. The analyses were initiated by testing two reference materials, namely urban particulate matter 1648a and urban dust 1649b (NIST). Four different types of water were found in both NIST materials, which helped to optimize the temperature ramp program and its adjustment for real PM samples. It was found that water contents in total suspended particles (TSP) are similar to those typically occurring in urban background stations—approximately 7.12–45.13% of the TSP mass, differentiated into the following water mass contributions: 48.5% of the total water found was loosely bound water; 23.3% was attributed to the absorption water; while the missing 20% could be probably attributed to crystal water removed only above 180 °C and artifacts connected with the drift correction problem. By comparing water release curves for single PM-compounds like pure SiO2; Al2O3; NH4NO3; (NH4)2SO4 and NH4Cl with water spectra obtained for real PM samples, it was found that water in particulate matter mainly comes from the dehydration of TSP-bound crystalline like Al2O3, SiO2 and to a lesser extent from salts like NH4NO3; (NH4)2SO4 and NH4Cl. A newly used thermal ramp method was able to assess water contents from Teflon–polypropylene baked filters characterized by low melting points and therefore filter degradation even under temperatures oscillating around 200 °C. The advantage of this new work is the separation of different types of TSP-bound water contributions, facilitating and promoting further research on the origin of PM-bound water and its role in atmospheric chemistry, secondary aerosol formation and visibility.

Regression Model of PM2.5 Concentration in a Single-Family House

The purpose of this study is to model air pollution with the PM2.5 suspended particulate in a single-family house located in Bialystok. A linear regression model was developed that describes the relationship between the concentration of PM2.5 (response variable) in a building and external factors: concentrations of PM10 and PM2.5 particulates, air temperature and relative humidity (independent variables). Statistical and substantive verification of the model indicates that the concentration of PM10 in outdoor air is the variable most strongly affecting the concentration of harmful PM2.5 in indoor air. The model therefore allows estimating the concentration of PM2.5 in the building on the basis of data on the concentration of PM10 outside the tested object, which can be useful for assessing indoor air quality without using a measuring tool inside the building. Excel and GRETL were used to develop the model.

Atmospheric Aerosol Distribution in 2016–2017 over the Eastern European Region Based on the GEOS-Chem Model

The spatial and temporal distributions of atmospheric aerosols have been simulated using the GEOS-Chem model over the sparsely investigated Eastern European region. The spatial distribution of the particulate matter (PM2.5) concentration, mineral dust, black carbon, organic aerosols, sea salt, as well as nitrate, sulfate, and ammonium aerosols during 2016–2017 were considered. The aerosols’ concentration, seasonality and spatial features were determined for the region. Particulate matter (PM2.5) contamination prevails in Poland in late autumn and winter. The monthly mean PM2.5 concentration reached 55 µg m−3 over the Moscow region in the early spring of both years. The mineral dust concentration varied significantly, reaching 40 µg m−3 over the southwestern part of Eastern Europe in March 2016. The areas most polluted by black carbon aerosols were the central and southern parts of Poland in the winter. The organic aerosols’ concentration was the largest in March and April, reaching 10 µg m−3 over East Belarus. The sea salt aerosol concentration increased in the coastal regions in winter due to the wind strength. Mineral dust aerosols in Eastern Europe are mainly composed of dust, partially transported from the Ukrainian steppe and partially from the Saharan Desert.

The Content of Selected Heavy Metals and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in PM10 in Urban-Industrial Area

This research concerns the measurement of daily PM10 concentrations and the assessment of heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The measurements were carried out in the urban-industrial area in southern Poland in the period from February to December 2019 (covering heating and non-heating seasons). The metal content of As, Cd, Pb, Ni, Co, Cr, Cu, Zn, V, was estimated using mass spectrometry with inductively excited plasma (ICP-MS), and that of Au and Mg using atomic emission spectrometry with induced plasma (ICP-OES). Analysis of selected PAHs (Naph, Acy, Ace, Fl, Phen, An, Fluo, Pyr, BaA, Chry, BbF, BkF, BaP, IcdP, DahA, BghiP) was performed using a gas chromatograph coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The share of the analyzed metals in PM10 concentrations was ~1.37% in the entire measurement period, ~1.09% in the heating season and ~1.55% in the non-heating one. High concentrations of aluminum and chromium, observed over the measurement period, indicate the presence of strong anthropogenic sources of both metals. In the case of PAHs in PM10, the average total share of the analyzed was ~1.25%, while this share slightly increased in the heating season (average: ~2.19%) compared to non-heating (average: ~0.63%).

Assessing the Impact of Road Traffic Reorganization on Air Quality: A Street Canyon Case Study

One of the elements of strategy aimed at minimizing the impact of road transport on air quality is the introduction of its reorganization resulting in decreased pollutant emissions to the air. The aim of the study was to determine the optimal strategy of corrective actions in terms of the air pollutant emissions from road transport. The study presents the assessment results of the emission reduction degree of selected pollutants (PM10, PM2.5, and NOx) as well as the impact evaluation of this reduction on their concentrations in the air for adopted scenarios of the road management changes for one of the street canyons in Krakow (Southern Poland). Three scenarios under consideration of the city authorities were assessed: narrowing the cross-section of the street by eliminating one lane in both directions, limiting the maximum speed from 70 km/h to 50 km/h, and allowing only passenger and light commercial vehicles on the streets that meet the Euro 4 standard or higher. The best effects were obtained for the variant assuming banning of vehicles failing to meet the specified Euro standard. It would result in a decrease of the yearly averaged PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations by about 8–9% and for NOx by almost 30%.

Concentration Variability of Water-Soluble Ions during the Acceptable and Exceeded Pollution in an Industrial Region

This study investigates the chemical composition of water-soluble inorganic ions at eight localities situated in the Moravian-Silesian Region (the Czech Republic) at the border with Poland. Water-soluble inorganic ions were monitored in the winter period of 2018 (January, 11 days and February, 5 days). The set was divided into two periods: the acceptable period (the 24-h concentration of PM₁₀ < 50 µg/m³) and the period with exceeded pollution (PM₁₀ ˃ 50 µg/m³). Air quality in the Moravian-Silesian Region and Upper Silesia is among the most polluted in Europe, especially in the winter season when the concentration of PM₁₀ is repeatedly exceeded. The information on the occurrence and behaviour of water-soluble inorganic ions in the air during the smog episodes in Europe is insufficient. The concentrations of water-soluble ions (chlorides, sulphates, nitrates, ammonium ions, potassium) during the exceeded period are higher by two to three times compared with the acceptable period. The major anions for both acceptable period and exceeded pollution are nitrates. During the period of exceeded pollution, percentages of water-soluble ions in PM₁₀ decrease while percentages of carbonaceous matter and insoluble particles (fly ash) increase.

Selected Metals in Urban Road Dust: Upper and Lower Silesia Case Study

In this study, urban road dust (URD) samples were collected in two populated agglomerations of Wrocław and Katowice (Lower and Upper Silesia) in Poland. Both the total concentrations of URD-bound Mn, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Rb, Ba, Cr, Mg, and Al and concentrations of their water-soluble fraction were determined. The contamination characteristics and health risk related to these elements were assessed. Contamination level assessment was done by Pollution Load Index (PLI), which indicated much higher pollution of Katowice agglomeration than Wrocław. The enrichment factor values (EF) showed that the most elements in both Katowice and Wrocław orginated from anthropogenic sources. The calculations of geo-accumulation index (Igeo) showed that Zn and As are the key pollutants in Katowice; and in the Wrocław region, Cu, Zn, Cr, and Ni are. The principle component analysis (PCA) and correlation analysis provide information about the potential sources of metals. Additionally, a positive matrix factorization (PMF) was performed and four factors in PMF analysis were found and then interpreted by comparing to the source profiles. Three contamination sources were revealed: fossil fuel combustion, road traffic and industrial emissions. Although the main source of studied metals in Lower Silesia is road traffic, in Upper Silesia, domestic heating with the use of hard and brawn coal and industrial activity predominates. Human exposure to individual toxic metals through road dust was assessed for both children and adults. By calculating the average daily dose (ADD) via ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact, it was found that ingestion and then dermal contact were the greatest exposure pathways for humans in Katowice and Wrocław. Children had greater health risks than adults. According to the health risk assessment, the overall non-carcinogenic risks in both urban areas was rather low. The only exception was As bound to urban road dust in Katowice agglomeration, which indicates risk for children when ingested. The total excess cancer risk (ECR) was also lower than the acceptable level (10−6–10−4) for both adults and children, although ECR for Katowice was closer to this limit.

Application of the Principal Component Analysis (PCA) Method to Assess the Impact of Meteorological Elements on Concentrations of Particulate Matter (PM10): A Case Study of the Mountain Valley (the Sącz Basin, Poland)

The aim of this study was to determine, by use PCA analysis, the impact of meteorological elements on the PM10 concentration on the example of the mountain valley. Daily values of selected meteorological elements, measured during a ten-year period in the spring, summer, autumn and winter, obtained from the meteorological station in Nowy Sącz, were adopted as variables explaining PM10 concentration. The level of PM10 was significantly affected by the maximum, minimum and average temperature in autumn, winter and spring. In summer the average and maximum temperature was significant. In winter, the first principle component mainly consisted of the combination of the average and maximum wind speed. The second principal component in spring, summer and autumn was the combination of the wind speed (average and maximum), but in winter humidity and atmospheric pressure seemed to be significant. The third principal component, in terms of strength of impact, was humidity in spring, the combination of humidity and minimum temperature in summer, and precipitation in autumn. In winter, the highest PM10 concentrations were observed during the non-directional, anticyclonic wedge conditions. Three principal components were distinguished in this situation: temperature (average, maximum and minimum); the combination of humidity and wind speed and precipitation.