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Sekhavatizadeh SS, Afrasiabi F, Montaseri Z. Encapsulation of probiotic Lactobacillus acidophilus ATCC 4356 in alginate-galbanum (Ferula Gummosa Boiss) gum microspheres and evaluation of the survival in simulated gastrointestinal conditions in probiotic Tahini halva. Braz J Microbiol 2023; 54:1589-1601. [PMID: 37515666 PMCID: PMC10485199 DOI: 10.1007/s42770-023-01074-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/31/2023] Open
Abstract
One of the famous traditional confectionery products is Tahini halva. The aim of this study was the production of probiotic halva using free Lactobacillus acidophilus (FLA) and microencapsulated Lactobacillus acidophilus (MLA) with sodium alginate and galbanum gum as the second layer. The survival rate of MLA and FLA during heat stress, storage time, and simulation gastrointestinal condition in Tahini halva was assessed. The survival rates of MLA and FLA under heat stress were 50.13% and 34.6% respectively. During storage in Tahini halva, the cell viability loss was 3.25 Log CFU g-1 and 6.94 Log CFU g-1 for MLA and FLA, separately. Around 3.58 and 4.77 Log CFU g-1 bacteria were reduced after 6 h of exposure in simulated gastrointestinal conditions, for MLA and FLA respectively. These results suggest that the use of alginate and galbanum gum is a promising approach to protecting L. acidophilus against harsh environmental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seyed Saeed Sekhavatizadeh
- Fars Agricultural and Natural Resources Research and Education Center, AREEO, Post Box: 7155863511, Shiraz, Fars, Iran.
| | - Forough Afrasiabi
- Food Science and Technology, Islamic Azad University, Sarvestan, Fars, Iran
| | - Zahra Montaseri
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Fasa University of Medical Sciences, Fasa, Iran
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Zangani E, Angourani HR, Andalibi B, Rad SV, Mastinu A. Sodium Nitroprusside Improves the Growth and Behavior of the Stomata of Silybum marianum L. Subjected to Different Degrees of Drought. Life (Basel) 2023; 13:life13040875. [PMID: 37109404 PMCID: PMC10145804 DOI: 10.3390/life13040875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2023] [Revised: 03/16/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The use of growth-stimulating signals to increase the tolerance of plants to water deficits can be an important strategy in the production of plants in dry areas. Therefore, a split-plot experiment with three replications was conducted to evaluate the effects of sodium nitroprusside (SNP) application rate as an NO donor (0, 100, and 200 µM) on the growth and yield parameters of Silybum marianum L. (S. marianum) under different irrigation cut-off times (control, irrigation cut-off from stem elongation, and anthesis). The results of this study showed that with increasing drought severity, leaf RWC, proline content and capitula per plant, 1000 grain weight, plant height, branch per plant, capitula diameter, and the biological and grain yield of S. marianum decreased significantly, whereas the number of grains per capitula increased compared with the control. Also, by irrigation cut-off from the stem elongation stage, the density of leaf stomata at the bottom and top epidermis increased by 64% and 39%, respectively, and the length of the stomata at the bottom epidermis of the leaf decreased up to 28%. In contrast, the results of this experiment showed that the exogenous application of nitric oxide reduced the negative effects of irrigation cut-off, such that the application of 100 µM SNP enhanced RWC content (up to 9%), proline concentration (up to 40%), and grain (up to 34%) and biological (up to 44%) yields in plants under drought stress compared with non-application of SNP. The decrease in the number of capitula per plant and capitula diameter was also compensated by foliar application of 100 µM SNP under stress conditions. In addition, exogenous NO changed the behavior of the stomata during the period of dehydration, such that plants treated with SNP showed a decrease in the stomatal density of the leaf and an increase in the length of the stomata at the leaf bottom epidermis. These results indicate that SNP treatment, especially at 100 µM, was helpful in alleviating the deleterious effects of water deficiency and enhancing the tolerance of S. marianum to withholding irrigation times.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esmaeil Zangani
- Department of Plant Production and Genetics, University of Zanjan, Zanjan 45371-38791, Iran;
- Correspondence: (E.Z.); (A.M.)
| | - Hossein Rabbi Angourani
- Research Institute of Modern Biological Techniques, University of Zanjan, Zanjan 45371-38791, Iran;
| | - Babak Andalibi
- Department of Plant Production and Genetics, University of Zanjan, Zanjan 45371-38791, Iran;
| | - Saeid Vaezi Rad
- Department of Agronomy, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Zanjan 45156-58145, Iran;
| | - Andrea Mastinu
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Division of Pharmacology, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy
- Correspondence: (E.Z.); (A.M.)
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Angourani HR, Zarei A, Moghadam MM, Ramazani A, Mastinu A. Investigation on the Essential Oils of the Achillea Species: From Chemical Analysis to the In Silico Uptake against SARS-CoV-2 Main Protease. Life (Basel) 2023; 13:life13020378. [PMID: 36836736 PMCID: PMC9967057 DOI: 10.3390/life13020378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2023] [Revised: 01/15/2023] [Accepted: 01/26/2023] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
In this study, phytochemicals extracted from three different Achillea genera were identified and analyzed to be screened for their interactions with the SARS-CoV-2 main protease. In particular, the antiviral potential of these natural products against the SARS-CoV-2 main protease was investigated, as was their effectiveness against the SARS-CoV-1 main protease as a standard (due to its high similarity with SARS-CoV-2). These enzymes play key roles in the proliferation of viral strains in the human cytological domain. GC-MS analysis was used to identify the essential oils of the Achillea species. Chemi-informatics tools, such as AutoDock 4.2.6, SwissADME, ProTox-II, and LigPlot, were used to investigate the action of the pharmacoactive compounds against the main proteases of SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2. Based on the binding energies of kessanyl acetate, chavibetol (m-eugenol), farnesol, and 7-epi-β-eudesmol were localized at the active site of the coronaviruses. Furthermore, these molecules, through hydrogen bonding with the amino acid residues of the active sites of viral proteins, were found to block the progression of SARS-CoV-2. Screening and computer analysis provided us with the opportunity to consider these molecules for further preclinical studies. Furthermore, considering their low toxicity, the data may pave the way for new in vitro and in vivo research on these natural inhibitors of the main SARS-CoV-2 protease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hossein Rabbi Angourani
- Research Institute of Modern Biological Techniques (RIMBT), University of Zanjan, Zanjan 45371-38791, Iran
| | - Armin Zarei
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Zanjan, Zanjan 45371-38791, Iran
- Correspondence: (A.Z.); (A.R.); (A.M.)
| | - Maryam Manafi Moghadam
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Zanjan, Zanjan 45371-38791, Iran
| | - Ali Ramazani
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Zanjan, Zanjan 45371-38791, Iran
- Correspondence: (A.Z.); (A.R.); (A.M.)
| | - Andrea Mastinu
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Viale Europa 11, 25123 Brescia, Italy
- Correspondence: (A.Z.); (A.R.); (A.M.)
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Ammarellou A, Yousefi AR, Heydari M, Uberti D, Mastinu A. Biochemical and Botanical Aspects of Allium sativum L. Sowing. BIOTECH 2022; 11:biotech11020016. [PMID: 35822789 PMCID: PMC9264397 DOI: 10.3390/biotech11020016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2022] [Revised: 05/13/2022] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The main aim of this study was to evaluate the yield and compliance of selected Iranian garlic (Allium sativum L.) cultivars, including Tuyserkan (TSN), Heydareh (HDH), Mouien (MUN), and Taroom (TRM), during two growing seasons. The TRM cultivar germination rate is higher than the other cultivars studied. The TRM cultivars have quite remarkable values for the dry weight, fresh weight, stem diameter, and the number of leaves present. The fresh weight and dry weight of the TRM cultivar for the second year are 33.8 t/ha and 16.7 t/ha, respectively. However, on average, the HDH cultivar is the tallest plant in the experiments. Average pyruvic acid content in fresh samples of the TRM and HDH cultivars is 78 µm/gfw and 69.3 µm/gfw, respectively. It is observed that there are remarkable differences in the level of pyruvic acid between the different cultivars. The growth, development, and yield of plants are highly dependent on their genetic characteristics; in this experiment, the TRM cultivar shows a good yield (16.7 t/ha), and the evaluated characteristics improve compared to the other cultivars studied, which could be due to the high compatibility of this cultivar to the environmental conditions of the study. The excellent performance on the yield of TRM makes this cultivar more appreciable on a commercial level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Ammarellou
- Research Institute of Modern Biological Techniques, University of Zanjan, Zanjan 45371-38791, Iran;
| | - Ali Reza Yousefi
- Department of Plant Production and Genetics, University of Zanjan, Zanjan 45371-38791, Iran;
- Correspondence: (A.R.Y.); (A.M.)
| | - Moslem Heydari
- Department of Plant Production and Genetics, University of Zanjan, Zanjan 45371-38791, Iran;
| | - Daniela Uberti
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy;
| | - Andrea Mastinu
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy;
- Correspondence: (A.R.Y.); (A.M.)
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Yousefvand P, Sohrabi Y, Heidari G, Weisany W, Mastinu A. Salicylic Acid Stimulates Defense Systems in Allium hirtifolium Grown under Water Deficit Stress. Molecules 2022; 27:3083. [PMID: 35630559 PMCID: PMC9145819 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27103083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2022] [Revised: 05/03/2022] [Accepted: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Nowadays, the use of the growth regulator salicylic acid for improving a plant's resistance to environmental stresses such as drought is increasing. The present study investigated the effect of salicylic acid on the physiological traits, antioxidant enzymes, yield, and quality of Allium hirtifolium (shallots) under drought conditions for three years (2016-2017, 2017-2018, and 2018-2019). The experiment was conducted as a split-plot based on a randomized complete block design with four repeats. Irrigation as the main factor in four levels of 100% (full irrigation), 75% and 50% of the plant water requirements with non-irrigation (dryland), and salicylic acid as the sub-factor in four levels of 0, 0.75, and 1 mmol, were the studied factors in this research. The combined analysis of three-year data showed that drought reduced leaf relative water content (RWC), membrane stability index (MSI), chlorophyll content, onion yield, and increased activity of antioxidant enzymes, proline content, tang, and allicin of shallots. Shallot spraying with salicylic acid improved leaf RWC, MSI, chlorophyll content, and onion yield. The highest yield of onion (1427 gr m-2) belonged to full irrigation and foliar application of 1 mmol salicylic acid. The lowest yield (419.8 gr m-2) belonged to plats with non-irrigation and non-application of salicylic acid. By improving the effective physiological traits in resistance to water deficit, salicylic acid adjusted the effects of water deficit on the yield of shallots. Foliar application of 1 mmol salicylic acid in dryland and irrigation of 50% of the plant water requirement increased onion yield by 15.12% and 29.39%, respectively, compared to the control treatment without salicylic acid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peyman Yousefvand
- Department of Agronomy and Plant Breeding, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Kurdistan, Sanandaj 66177, Iran; (P.Y.); (G.H.)
| | - Yousef Sohrabi
- Department of Agronomy and Plant Breeding, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Kurdistan, Sanandaj 66177, Iran; (P.Y.); (G.H.)
| | - Gholamreza Heidari
- Department of Agronomy and Plant Breeding, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Kurdistan, Sanandaj 66177, Iran; (P.Y.); (G.H.)
| | - Weria Weisany
- Department of Agriculture and Food Science, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran 14778, Iran;
| | - Andrea Mastinu
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy
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Physiological, Biochemical, and Agronomic Trait Responses of Nigella sativa Genotypes to Water Stress. HORTICULTURAE 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/horticulturae8030193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Water stress may affect the growth, physiology, morphology, biochemistry, and productivity of Nigella sativa (black cumin), a medicinal and aromatic plant. Measuring these parameters under various irrigation regimes could provide useful information for successful genotype selection and breeding. Therefore, these agronomically significant features were evaluated in ten black cumin genotypes (Afghanistan, Pakistan, Syria, India, Arak, Isfahan, Semirom, Shahreza, Shahrekord, and Mashhad) under three irrigation regimes (40% (I1), 60% (I2), and 80% (I3) of permissible moisture discharge) during the 2017 to 2018 growing seasons. Water stress was shown to increase the levels of carotenoids (Cars), proline, total soluble carbohydrates (TSC), malondialdehyde (MDA), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), catalase (CAT), and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) activities but reduced the relative water content (RWC) and chlorophyll content. The highest increases in Cars, TSC, proline, CAT, and APX were noted in the Arak, Isfahan, Semirom, Shahreza, Shahrekord, and Mashhad genotypes under the I3 water regime, respectively. At the same time, the lowest decrease was observed in chlorophyll, H2O2, and relative water content (RWC) in Semirom. According to the stress susceptibility index, the most resistant genotypes were Shahrekord under I2 and Semirom under I3. These data demonstrate that the irrigation regimes affected the physiological, biochemical, and morphological features of black cumin both qualitatively and quantitatively, although the impact varied depending upon the genotype, irrigation regime, and traits. As such, the results presented represent valuable information with which to inform future selection and breeding programs for drought-tolerant black cumin. This is of particular significance considering global climate change.
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Physiological and Qualitative Response of Cucurbita pepo L. to Salicylic Acid under Controlled Water Stress Conditions. HORTICULTURAE 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/horticulturae8010079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Limited water stress is one of the most important environmental stresses that affect the growth, quantity and quality of agronomic crops. This study was undertaken to investigate the effect of foliar applied salicylic acid (SA) on physiological responses, antioxidant enzymes and qualitative traits of Cucurbita pepo L. Plants exposed to water-stressed conditions in two years of field studies. Irrigation regimes at three soil matric potential levels (−0.3, −1.2 and −1.8 MPa) and SA at four levels (0.0, 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 mg/L) were considered as main plot and sub-plots, respectively. The soil matric potential values (MPa) was measured just before irrigation. Results showed that under water stressed conditions alone, the amounts of malondialdehyde (MDA), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and ion leakage were higher compared with control treatment. However, spraying of SA under both water stress and non-stress conditions reduced the values of the above parameters. Water stress increased CAT, APX and GR enzymes activity. However foliar application of SA led to the decrease of CAT, APX and GR under all soil matric potential levels. The amount of carbohydrates and fatty acids increased with the intensity of water stress and SA modulated this response. By increasing SA concentration both in optimum and stress conditions, saturated fatty acids content decreased. According to our data, the SA application is an effective approach to improve pumpkin growth under water stress conditions.
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Noryan M, Hervan IM, Sabouri H, Kojouri FD, Mastinu A. Drought Resistance Loci in Recombinant Lines of Iranian Oryza sativa L. in Germination Stage. BIOTECH 2021; 10:biotech10040026. [PMID: 35822800 PMCID: PMC9245469 DOI: 10.3390/biotech10040026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2021] [Revised: 10/26/2021] [Accepted: 11/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
In order to locate control genes related to Oryza sativa L. traits at the germination stage under normal conditions and at drought stress levels (−4.5 and −9.0 bar), we evaluated 120 F8 generation offspring from the cross between two cultivars Neda × Ahlemitarum in a factorial experiment in a completely randomized block design with three replications in 2013 in the botanical laboratory of Gonbad Kavous University. A linkage map was prepared using 90 Simple Sequence Repeats (SSR) markers and 28 Inter Simple Sequence Repeats (ISSR), and 6 iPBS and 9 IRAP markers (265 polymorphic alleles). The results of the analysis of variance showed that all of the evaluated traits had a significant difference at the probability level of 1%. Hence, it can be noted that the desired genetic diversity can be found between genotypes. The results of the stepwise regression analysis for the germination percentage as a dependent variable and other traits as independent variables in the studied treatments showed that under normal conditions, there was variable coleoptile length, but under drought stress of −4.5 and −9.0 bar, the variable plumule dry weight entered the model. In this study, the markers included in RM1-RM490 and ISSR2-3-RM133 of chromosomes 1 and 6 of Oryza sativa were identified as the main regulators of traits associated with Oryza sativa drought resistance. In particular, they present the quantitative trait loci (QTL) that control the first stages of germination of Oryza sativa in water stress conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morteza Noryan
- Department of Plant Breeding, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran 1477893855, Iran; (M.N.); (I.M.H.); (F.D.K.)
| | - Islam Majidi Hervan
- Department of Plant Breeding, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran 1477893855, Iran; (M.N.); (I.M.H.); (F.D.K.)
| | - Hossein Sabouri
- Department of Plant Production, Collage of Agricultural Science and Natural Resources, Gonbad Kavous University, Gonbad Kavous 4971799151, Iran
- Correspondence: (H.S.); (A.M.)
| | - Faroukh Darvish Kojouri
- Department of Plant Breeding, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran 1477893855, Iran; (M.N.); (I.M.H.); (F.D.K.)
| | - Andrea Mastinu
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Division of Pharmacology, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy
- Correspondence: (H.S.); (A.M.)
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Gupta AK, Dhua S, Sahu PP, Abate G, Mishra P, Mastinu A. Variation in Phytochemical, Antioxidant and Volatile Composition of Pomelo Fruit ( Citrus grandis (L.) Osbeck) during Seasonal Growth and Development. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 10:plants10091941. [PMID: 34579472 PMCID: PMC8467822 DOI: 10.3390/plants10091941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2021] [Revised: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Citrus fruits exhibit a high level of different phytoconstituents, of which the changes in the different parts of the fruit during ripening have not been thoroughly studied yet. Thus, in this study, we have investigated how different parts of pomelo fruit (Citrus grandis L.) are modified throughout the development of two consecutive growing seasons. In detail, the main phytochemical compounds, such as total phenolic content, total flavonoid content, antioxidant capacity, DPPH free radical scavenging activity, Ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), and naringin and tannin content, were analyzed. A systematic metabolism of these compounds was found during the development of the fruit, but some pomelo tissues showed a fluctuating trend, suggesting a dependence on the different growing season. Focusing on the tissue distribution of these compounds, the fruit membrane contained the highest level of total phenolic and flavonoid content; fruit flavedo displayed the highest antioxidant capacities and FRAP activities, whereas maximum accumulation of naringin was noticed in fruit albedo. Instead, the highest DPPH free radical scavenging activity and tannin contents were found in the pomelo juice. Regarding the distribution of compounds, a possible bias pattern for the accumulation of those compounds has been noticed throughout the fruit development. From the GC-MS analysis, a total of 111 compounds were identified, where 91 compounds were common in both seasons. Overall, these results could be useful for the food processing industry as guidelines for excellent quality foods and for introducing health-beneficial products and components into our daily diets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arun Kumar Gupta
- Department of Food Engineering and Technology, Tezpur University, Tezpur 784028, Assam, India; (A.K.G.); (S.D.)
| | - Subhamoy Dhua
- Department of Food Engineering and Technology, Tezpur University, Tezpur 784028, Assam, India; (A.K.G.); (S.D.)
| | - Partha Pratim Sahu
- Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Tezpur University, Tezpur 784028, Assam, India;
| | - Giulia Abate
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Division of Pharmacology, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy;
- Correspondence: (G.A.); (P.M.); Tel.: +39-030-371-7509 (G.A.); +91-03712-267007 (ext. 5705) (P.M.)
| | - Poonam Mishra
- Department of Food Engineering and Technology, Tezpur University, Tezpur 784028, Assam, India; (A.K.G.); (S.D.)
- Correspondence: (G.A.); (P.M.); Tel.: +39-030-371-7509 (G.A.); +91-03712-267007 (ext. 5705) (P.M.)
| | - Andrea Mastinu
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Division of Pharmacology, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy;
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Competitive Ability Effects of Datura stramonium L. and Xanthium strumarium L. on the Development of Maize ( Zea mays) Seeds. PLANTS 2021; 10:plants10091922. [PMID: 34579455 PMCID: PMC8472135 DOI: 10.3390/plants10091922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2021] [Revised: 09/09/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to explore the physical properties of maize seeds in competition with weeds. The basic and complex geometric characteristics of seeds from maize plants, competing with Datura stramonium L. (DS) or Xanthium strumarium (XS) at different weed densities, were studied. It was found that the basic and complex geometric characteristics of maize seeds, such as dimension, aspect ratio, equivalent diameter, sphericity, surface area and volume, were significantly affected by weed competition. The increase in weed density from 0 to 8 plants m2 resulted in an increase in the angle of repose from 27° to 29°, while increasing weed density from 8 to 16 plants m2 caused a diminution of the angle of repose down to 28°. Increasing the density of XS and DS to 16 plants m2 caused a reduction in the maximum 1000 seed weight of maize by 40.3% and 37.4%, respectively. These weed side effects must be considered in the design of industrial equipment for seed cleaning, grading and separation. To our knowledge, this is the first study to consider the effects of weed competition on maize traits, which are important in industrial processing such as seed aeration, sifting and drying.
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