Current Mercury Exposure from Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in Bombana, Southeast Sulawesi, Indonesia-Future Significant Health Risks

Mercury Exposure in Artisanal Mining: Assessing the Effect of Occupational Activities on Blood Mercury Levels Among Artisanal and Small-Scale Goldminers in Ghana

A cross-sectional survey of 425 male artisanal and small-scale goldminers (ASGM) was conducted to examine the relationship between the occupational activities of the miners and their blood mercury levels while controlling for relevant biosocial and socio-cultural factors. The data was subjected to descriptive and inferential statistics. Initial findings showed that 43.29% of the ASGM miners had blood mercury levels above the occupational exposure threshold. Among the occupational factors, ASGM miners who amalgamate gold, burn amalgam, and ASGM miners who smelt gold were 2.260, 1.881, and 2.094 times respectively more likely to have high blood mercury levels as compared to ASGM miners who did not carry out these activities. Also, ASGM miners who suck excess mercury with their mouth (OR = 0.197, p < 0.001) were less likely to have high blood mercury levels. For the biosocial and socio-cultural attributes, high blood mercury levels was less likely among older ASGM miners (OR = 0.507, p < 0.05). Inversely, high blood mercury levels was more likely among ASGM miners who are married (OR = 1.627, p < 0.05), ASGM miners with junior (OR = 2.240, p < 0.001) and senior (OR = 1.575, p < 0.05) high school education, and ASGM miners who have 6-10 years (OR = 3.802, p < 0.001) and above 10 years (OR = 2.591, p < 0.001) work experience. ASGM miners who amalgamate gold, burn amalgam, and smelt gold are exposed to mercury and are at risk of mercury poisoning. This could, however, be minimized with the right capturing devices and personal protective equipment. This notwithstanding, unsafe, and unsustainable occupational practices such as working in mercury contaminated water and sucking excess mercury with the mouth should be discouraged.

Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining (ASGM): Management and Socioenvironmental Impacts in the Northern Amazon of Ecuador

Mining is one of the oldest economic activities of mankind. Within this activity, artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) is one of the most studied sectors due to its high level of environmental contamination and the social problems it causes. In recent years, ASGM in the northern Amazon of Ecuador has increased significantly, and studies that describe its current situation and impact are scarce. In this sense, the present study aimed to analyze the current status and socioenvironmental impacts caused by ASGM gold mining activities in the Cascales canton in the province of Sucumbíos in northeastern Ecuador. The methodological tools used in the present study were a literature review of scientific and gray literature, field visits to assess perceived impacts and an expert judgment to discuss the results and establish challenges. The main results indicate that illegal and informal activities continue to be carried out in the upper zone of the Cascales and Duvino rivers; 90% of local miners still use mercury in this activity, although it is legally prohibited. Among the main impacts evidenced are the contamination of water bodies, soil and atmosphere due to the use of mercury and disturbance to flora and fauna due to the use of machinery in the exploration process. Finally, the government should focus efforts on strengthening public policies to socialize the importance of good environmental practices in ASGM and the effects of the impacts on human health and environmental issues, all this with the support of social actors, such as ministries, universities, NGOs, ASGM associations and private enterprise.

A preliminary study on health impacts of Mexican mercury mining workers in a context of precarious employment

Mercury mining is one of the main sources of mercury (Hg) release into the environment, causing serious impacts on human health and the environment. Workers in these mines are employed informally and precariously and therefore lack labor rights such as social security. The objective of the study is to make visible the exposure to environmental contaminants and the health of workers in mercury mines. An environmental assessment was conducted to determine workers' exposure to contaminants; urine samples were obtained to measure exposure to mercury and arsenic, and blood samples were obtained for lead and cadmium. Clinical parameters were also evaluated. Concentrations of Hg, As and Pb were determined in soil, 279.4 mg/kg (24.4-788.5), 14.7 mg/kg (9.5-20.3) and 1.4 mg/kg (1-2.8), respectively. The exposure results for mercury were 551 μg/g creatinine, for arsenic 50 μg/L and for lead 4.7 μg/dL. Cd-B was not found. In addition, 17.6 % of the workers had diabetes and 17.6 % had renal disorders. Principal Component Regression was performed obtaining an r2 of 0.86 for glomerular filtration rate and 0.54 for albumin creatinine ratio using clinical, occupational, and metal exposure variables. Exposure to Hg in this type of mine is not exclusive, so there is a cumulative risk of chronic exposure to different environmental pollutants directly impacting the health of workers. It is necessary to implement health strategies and different work opportunities for these workers.

Indonesian Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining—A Narrative Literature Review

Indonesia is host to a long history of gold mining and is responsible for a significant contribution to world gold production. This is true not only with regard to large gold mining companies but also to small-scale mining groups comprised of people and enterprises that participate in the gold industry of Indonesia. More than two thousand gold mining locations exist in present day Indonesia. Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) sites are spread out across thirty provinces in Indonesia, and have provided work opportunities and income for more than two million people. However, the majority of ASGM activities use rudimentary technologies that have serious impacts upon the environment, public health, and miners’ safety, which in turn generate socio-economic impacts for people residing around the mine sites. Moreover, many ASGMs are not licensed and operate illegally, meaning that they are immune to governmental regulation, and do not provide income to the regions and states via taxes. The possibility for more prudent management of ASGM operations could become a reality with the involvement and cooperation of all relevant parties, especially communities, local government, police, and NGOs.

Disorders of the Reproductive Health of Cattle as a Response to Exposure to Toxic Metals

The aim of this review is to comprehensively present disorders of the reproductive system in cattle exposed to contact with toxic metals. Toxic metals are a common environmental pollutant and can come from mines, smelters, fossil fuel combustion, or volcanic eruptions. Metals have the ability to bioaccumulate in living organisms, thus contaminating the food chain and may pose a threat to humans. They accumulate mainly in the liver and kidneys, but also in muscles and fat tissue. Toxic metals such as lead (Pb), arsenic (As), mercury (Hg), and cadmium (Cd) have a negative impact on the fertility of animals; they can lead to abortions, premature calving, or oocyte dysfunction. Moreover, in the male reproductive system, they disrupt spermatogenesis, and cause apoptosis of sperm and oxidative damage. The main source of exposure of livestock to toxic metals is through the consumption of feed or contaminated water. It is important to monitor the level of heavy metals in animal products to prevent human poisoning. Toxic metal biomonitoring can be performed by testing urine, blood, milk, plasma, or hair. Chromium (Cr), arsenic (As), and cadmium (Cd) are excreted in the urine, while lead can be detected by examining the blood of animals, while in milk, arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), nickel (Ni), and lead (Pb) can be detected. Moreover, toxic metals do not biodegrade in the environment. To purify soil and waters, remediation methods, e.g., biological or chemical, should be used.

Artisanal and Small Gold Mining and Petroleum Production as Potential Sources of Heavy Metal Contamination in Ecuador: A Call to Action

Mining and petroleum production are the source of many elements and base materials fundamental for our modern way of life. The flip side of these keystone industries is the environmental degradation they can cause if not properly managed. Metallic mining and petroleum production can contaminate the local ecosystem with sediments, chemicals used in the industrial processes and heavy metals, part of the metallic ore or oil reservoir. The objective of this project was to analyze the spatial distribution of the presence of different potentially hazardous elements that make up the metallic deposits and oil reservoirs in Ecuador, focused mainly on artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) districts. Additionally, we were interested in analyzing this information under the local political and administrative contexts which are key to determining how likely it is that mismanagement of the local mineral deposits and petroleum exploitation projects will end up causing environmental degradation. An extensive and intensive literature search was conducted for information on the presence and concentration of 19 potentially harmful elements. We analyzed data on 11 metallic deposits throughout Ecuador and a major oilfield in the Ecuadorian Amazon basin. We used geographic information systems to analyze the spatial distribution of these reservoirs and their mineral compositions. The results indicated a widespread distribution and high concentration of elements potentially harmful for human health, such as mercury, cadmium and arsenic, throughout the metallic deposits in Ecuador. This is particularly true for long-exploited ASGM districts, such as Ponce-Enríquez, Portovelo-Zaruma and Nambija. This study highlights the importance of understanding geological diversity and its potential risks to better protect the biological diversity and public health of its inhabitants. Furthermore, we consider our work not as a call to stop ASGM mining nor petroleum production, but on the contrary as a strong call to plan every mining and petroleum production project considering these risks. Moreover, our work is a call to action by the local government and authorities to stop corruption and fulfill their duties overseeing the activities of mining and petroleum companies, stopping illegal mining, helping ASGM communities to improve their environmental standards, finding alternative income sources and protecting the local environment.

Mercury Exposure in Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining Communities in Sukabumi, Indonesia

BACKGROUND

Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) is one of the largest sources of mercury (Hg) pollution in Indonesia. In West Java Province, ASGM is found in Bogor, Cianjur, and Sukabumi Regencies.

OBJECTIVES

The present study aimed to evaluate Hg contamination effects and socioeconomic factors in communities living around ASGM operations in Sukabumi Regency.

METHODS

A quantitative method was used to describe socioeconomic ASGM communities. The concentrations of total mercury (T-Hg) in hair were measured in 71 respondents. This study also assessed perception of the use of Hg in the gold ore processing and their impact on the environment.

RESULTS

The population of gold miners in the studied three villages was 1300 households (25.77% from a total of 5044 households). Artisanal and small-scale gold mining involves both men and women employed as miners and gold amalgam processors, respectively. The average monthly income generated as much as Indonesian Rupiah (IDR) 272 000-2 000 000 (about 19-140 USD). Total Hg analysis was conducted for hair samples of 71 respondents (38 men, 33 women). The results showed an average T-Hg in men of 3.27±2.89 ppm, and women of 5.91±4.69 ppm. The level of T-Hg in the respondents was associated with distance to the ball mills and not related to distance to the mine site.

PARTICIPANT CONSENT

Obtained.

ETHICS APPROVAL

This study was approved by Ministry of Environment and Forestry of the Republic of Indonesia.

COMPETING INTERESTS

The authors declare no competing financial interests.

Trace Elements in Blood of the Population Living near a Hazardous Waste Incinerator in Catalonia, Spain

In 2012, the concentrations of trace elements (As, Be, Cd, Cr, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sn, Tl, and V) were measured in blood samples of the population living in the vicinity of a hazardous waste incinerator (HWI) located in Tarragona County (Catalonia, Spain). This study is part of a wide surveillance program aimed at assessing the impact of the facility on the public health conducted since 1998, before the HWI started operating. Lead was the metal occurring with the highest concentration (21.7 μg kg^-1), followed by Mn (19.7 μg kg^-1) and Hg (4.62 μg kg^-1). Arsenic (6.99 μg kg^-1) showed a low detection rate (49%), while the rest of the analyzed trace elements were not detected. In 2017, a new sampling campaign was conducted, and three new trace elements (Co, Cu, and Sb) were added. In the most recent survey, Cu reached a mean concentration of 931 μg kg^-1, up to 60-fold higher than that corresponding to the remaining trace elements. Relatively high levels were also found for Sb (16.0 μg kg^-1), Mn (13.9 μg kg^-1), and Pb (13.0 μg kg^-1). In comparison with the baseline study (1998), Hg, Mn, and Pb significantly decreased over time. Some trace elements showed significant differences according to sex, age, and area of residence. In general, the concentrations of trace elements in blood were similar to, or even lower than, those reported in the scientific literature. Hence, the exposure to trace elements does not mean any additional health risk for the population living near the HWI. This conclusion is in agreement with other studies carried out in the framework of this surveillance program, in which trace elements have been measured in different biological matrices, such as hair and autopsy tissues (brain, bone, kidney, liver, and lungs).

The relationship of mercury exposure with neurological problems in artisanal gold in Makassar city

Objectives This research aims to analyse the relationship between urine mercury levels and neurological problems. Methods This research is an observational study with a cross-sectional approach. There are 44 goldsmiths in the gold jewellery small scale industry involved in this study. Urine mercury levels were measured using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Neurological problems were assessed by a medician. Data collected includes age, time of exposure, work duration, smoking behaviour and nutrition status of the goldsmiths which were obtained by interview. Results The results showed that the concentration of mercury in the goldsmith's urine was around 0.93-64.59 μg/L. The analysis showed that there were 63% of goldsmiths experiencing neurological problems, such as tremors (9.1%) and knee pass reflex (6.8%). The bivariate analysis showed that there is no significant relationship between the concentration of mercury (p=0.133), age (p=0.155), time of exposure (p=0.702), time of working (p=0.354), smoking behaviour (p=0.169) and nutrition status (p=0.541) with neurological problems. Conclusions The goldsmiths who had high levels of mercury in urine samples were diagnosed with at least one of the neurological symptoms. It is recommended that the goldsmith use personal protective equipment during work such as mask, glasses and gloves.

Artisanal and small-scale gold mining: A cross-sectional assessment of occupational mercury exposure and exposure risk factors in Kadoma and Shurugwi, Zimbabwe

In artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) the toxic metal mercury is used for gold extraction. The objective of this cross-sectional study was to assess mercury concentrations in urine and blood and mercury-related symptoms of participants identifying themselves as miners from Kadoma and Shurugwi, Zimbabwe. Moreover, we aimed to explore possible risk factors influencing mercury body burden. In 2019, urine and blood samples of 207 participants were collected and analyzed for mercury using atomic absorption spectroscopy. All participants answered questions regarding their exposure risks. The median urine mercury value was 4.75 μg/L with a maximum of 612 μg/L. Median mercury concentration in creatinine corrected urine values was 3.98 μg/g with a maximum value of 478 μg/g. The median blood mercury value was 2.70 μg/L with a maximum of 167 μg/L. Correlations between exposure risks factors such as the lack of retort use and elevated mercury values were demonstrated. ASGM is very common in Zimbabwe. Thus, mercury exposure is a major occupational health risk for miners. Moreover, this study emphasizes the impact of exposure risk factors on the mercury body burden.

Mercury in Soil and Forage Plants from Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in the Bombana Area, Indonesia

Mercury (Hg) contamination in soil and forage plants is toxic to ecosystems, and artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) is the main source of such pollution in the Bombana area of Indonesia. Hg contamination in soil and forage plants was investigated by particle-induced X-ray emission analysis of samples collected from three savannah areas (i.e., ASGM, commercial mining, and control areas) in the Bombana area. Hg contents of forage plants in the ASGM area (mean 9.90 ± 14 µg/g) exceeded those in the control area (2.70 ± 14 µg/g). Soil Hg contents (mean 390 ± 860 µg/g) were also higher than those in the control area (mean 7.40 ± 9.90 µg/g), with levels exceeding international regulatory limits. The Hg contents of 69% of soil and 78% of forage-plant samples exceeded critical toxicological limits. Thus, the Hg levels observed in this study indicate that contamination extending over large areas may cause major environmental problems.

Impact of environmental contaminants on reproductive health of male domestic ruminants: a review

Environmental contaminants are gaining more attention in the livestock sector lately due to their harmful effects on productivity and fertility of livestock. Recent research indicates that many domestic ruminants are becoming subfertile/infertile due to confounding reasons associated with management. Contaminants like metals, metalloids, herbicides, pesticides, insecticides, chemicals, or natural contaminants are present everywhere in day to day life and are becoming a threat to the livestock. Studies on a broad-spectrum of animals suggest that high doses of acute or low doses of chronic exposure to the contaminants lead to disruption of multi-organs/systems including reproductive function. The lowered reproductive efficiency in animals is attributed to the endocrine disruptor activities of the environmental contaminants on the gonads, affecting gametogenesis and steroidogenesis. In vitro studies on testicular cells and the semen suggest that spermatozoa are more susceptible to damage by environmental contaminants. The quality of the semen happens to be a critical factor in the livestock industry. Contaminants affecting gametogenesis and steroidogenesis may lead to devastating consequences to the livestock reproduction, and thus the production. However, there is a lack of collective data on the effect of such environmental contaminants on the fertility of male domestic ruminants. This review discusses the studies related to the impact of environmental contaminants on male fertility in large (bull and buffalo) and small (sheep and goat) ruminants by focusing on the underlying molecular interactions between the contaminants and gonads.

Biomonitoring of Trace Elements in Hair of Schoolchildren Living Near a Hazardous Waste Incinerator-A 20 Years Follow-Up

Since 1998, a monitoring program is periodically performed to assess the environmental and human health impact of air chemicals potentially emitted by a hazardous waste incinerator (HWI) located in Constantí (Catalonia, Spain). In 2017, samples of hair were collected from 94 schoolchildren (aged 10-13 years) living nearby and the levels of 11 trace elements (As, Be, Cd, Cr, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sn, Tl and V) were determined. The concentrations showed the following descending order: Pb > Hg > Ni > Sn > Mn > Cr. In turn, As, Be and Tl were not detected, while Cd and V were found only in a few samples. Some metal levels were significantly, positively correlated. Some significant differences were also noticed according to the gender and the specific zone of residence. Finally, the levels of trace elements showed fluctuations through time. Cr and Pb showed a significant decrease in comparison to the concentrations obtained in the baseline study (1998). According to the current results, metal emissions from the HWI are not relevant in terms of human health impact since their levels were similar and even lower than those reported in other contaminated areas.

Lung Function Assessment as an Early Biomonitor of Mercury-Induced Health Disorders in Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining Areas in Indonesia

The evaluation of mercury impact on humans is currently nonspecific because the body characteristics (homeostasis) of each human being varies. Therefore, in the early diagnosis of mercury toxicity, one of the most important monitoring parameters is the respiratory function examination. In this study, respiratory function was examined with a portable spirometer and correlated with the mercury levels in hair from the noses and heads of subjects. Samples were taken from artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) areas (villages of East Tulabolo and Dunggilata) and control areas (villages of Bongo and Longalo) in Gorontalo Province, Indonesia. A statistical analysis with the Mann⁻Whitney test (alternative) showed significant differences in lung function between the polluted and control areas (α = 0.03). The analysis of nasal and head hair samples with particle-induced X-ray emissions (PIXE) showed that the mercury levels in the ASGM area were considerably higher than in the more homogeneous control areas. This study confirms that a pulmonary function test is a quick and precise alternative way to monitor the impact of mercury on humans, especially atmospheric mercury, because we detected a negative correlation between pulmonary function and the level of mercury in hair.