The Occurrence of Potential Harmful Cyanobacteria and Cyanotoxins in the Obrzyca River (Poland), a Source of Drinking Water

A new concern raised from algal bloom: Organic chloramines in chlorination

Algal blooms have become a significant challenge in water treatment all over the world. In chlorination of drinking water, algal organic matter (AOM) leads to the formation of organic chloramines. The objectives of this review are to comprehensively summarize and discuss the up-to-date researches on AOM-derived organic chloramines and their chemical activities and toxicity, thereby drawing attention to the potentially chemical and hygienic risks of organic chloramines. The predominant algal species in water sources varied with location and season. AOM from cyanobacteria, green algae, and diatoms are composed of diverse composition. AOM-derived amino acids take a low portion of the precursors of organic chloramines. Both experimental kinetic data and quantum chemical calculation demonstrate the preferential formation of organic chloramines in the chlorination of model compounds (amino acids and peptides). Organic chloramines are persistent in water and can transform into dichloro- and trichloro-organic chloramines, unknown low-molecular-weight organic chloramines, and nitrogenous disinfection byproducts with the excess of free chlorine. The active chlorine (Cl+) in organic chloramines can lead to the formation of chlorinated phenolic compounds. Organic chloramines influence the generation and species of radicals and subsequent products in UV disinfection. Theoretical predictions and toxicological tests suggest that organic chloramines may cause oxidative or toxic pressure to bacteria or cells. Overall, organic chloramines, as one group of high-molecular-weight disinfection byproducts, have relatively long lifetimes, moderate chemical activities, and high hygienic risks to the public. Future perspectives of organic chloramines are suggested in terms of quantitative detection methods, the precursors from various predominant algal species, chemical activities of organic chloramines, and toxicity/impact.

Monitoring of toxic cyanobacterial blooms in Lalla Takerkoust reservoir by satellite imagery and microcystin transfer to surrounding farms

Cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms (CyanoHABs) threaten public health and freshwater ecosystems worldwide. In this study, our main goal was to explore the dynamics of cyanobacterial blooms and how microcystins (MCs) move from the Lalla Takerkoust reservoir to the nearby farms. We used Landsat imagery, molecular analysis, collecting and analyzing physicochemical data, and assessing toxins using HPLC. Our investigation identified two cyanobacterial species responsible for the blooms: Microcystis sp. and Synechococcus sp. Our Microcystis strain produced three MC variants (MC-RR, MC-YR, and MC-LR), with MC-RR exhibiting the highest concentrations in dissolved and intracellular toxins. In contrast, our Synechococcus strain did not produce any detectable toxins. To validate our Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) results, we utilized limnological data, including algal cell counts, and quantified MCs in freeze-dried Microcystis bloom samples collected from the reservoir. Our study revealed patterns and trends in cyanobacterial proliferation in the reservoir over 30 years and presented a historical map of the area of cyanobacterial infestation using the NDVI method. The study found that MC-LR accumulates near the water surface due to the buoyancy of Microcystis. The maximum concentration of MC-LR in the reservoir water was 160 µg L-1. In contrast, 4 km downstream of the reservoir, the concentration decreased by a factor of 5.39 to 29.63 µgL-1, indicating a decrease in MC-LR concentration with increasing distance from the bloom source. Similarly, the MC-YR concentration decreased by a factor of 2.98 for the same distance. Interestingly, the MC distribution varied with depth, with MC-LR dominating at the water surface and MC-YR at the reservoir outlet at a water depth of 10 m. Our findings highlight the impact of nutrient concentrations, environmental factors, and transfer processes on bloom dynamics and MC distribution. We emphasize the need for effective management strategies to minimize toxin transfer and ensure public health and safety.

Cyanobacteria and Macroinvertebrate Relationships in Freshwater Benthic Communities beyond Cytotoxicity

Cyanobacteria are harmful algae that are monitored worldwide to prevent the effects of the toxins that they can produce. Most research efforts have focused on direct or indirect effects on human populations, with a view to gain easy accurate detection and quantification methods, mainly in planktic communities, but with increasing interest shown in benthos. However, cyanobacteria have played a fundamental role from the very beginning in both the development of our planet's biodiversity and the construction of new habitats. These organisms have colonized almost every possible planktic or benthic environment on earth, including the most extreme ones, and display a vast number of adaptations. All this explains why they are the most important or the only phototrophs in some habitats. The negative effects of cyanotoxins on macroinvertebrates have been demonstrated, but usually under conditions that are far from natural, and on forms of exposure, toxin concentration, or composition. The cohabitation of cyanobacteria with most invertebrate groups is long-standing and has probably contributed to the development of detoxification means, which would explain the survival of some species inside cyanobacteria colonies. This review focuses on benthic cyanobacteria, their capacity to produce several types of toxins, and their relationships with benthic macroinvertebrates beyond toxicity.

Microcystin-LR sensitizes the Oncorhynchus mykiss intestinal epithelium and interacts with paralytic shellfish toxins to alter oxidative balance

In the context of harmful algal blooms, fish can be exposed to the combined effects of more than one toxin. We studied the effects of consecutive exposure to Microcystin-LR (MCLR) in vivo and paralytic shellfish toxins (PST) ex vivo/in vitro (MCLR+PST) in the rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss's middle intestine. We fed juvenile fish with MCLR incorporated in the feed every 12 h and euthanized them 48 h after the first feeding. Immediately, we removed the middle intestine to make ex vivo and in vitro preparations and exposed them to PST for one hour. We analyzed glutathione (GSH) and glutathione disulfide (GSSG) contents, glutathione S-transferase (GST), glutathione reductase (GR), catalase (CAT), and protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) activities in ex vivo intestinal strips; apical and basolateral ATP-biding cassette subfamily C (Abcc)-mediated transport in ex vivo everted and non- everted sacs; and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in isolated enterocytes in vitro. MCLR+PST treatment decreased the GSH content, GSH/GSSG ratio, GST activity, and increased ROS production. GR activity remained unchanged, while CAT activity only increased in response to PST. MCLR inhibited PP1 activity and activated Abcc-mediated transport only at the basolateral side of the intestine. Our results show a combined effect of MCLR+PST on the oxidative balance in the O. mykiss middle intestine, which is not affected by the two toxins groups when applied individually. Basolateral Abcc transporters activation by MCLR treatment could lead to an increase in the absorption of toxicants (including MCLR) into the organism. Therefore, MCLR makes the O. mykiss middle intestine more sensitive to possibly co-occurring cyanotoxins like PST.

Effects of Harmful Cyanobacteria on Drinking Water Source Quality and Ecosystems

A seasonal plethora of cyanobacteria in the plankton community can have severe implications, not only for water ecosystems but also for the availability of treated water. The catchment of the Obrzyca River (a source of drinking water) is seasonally exposed to harmful cyanobacterial bloom. Previous studies (2008-2012; 2019) revealed that the most polluted water of the Obrzyca River was Uście, close to the outlet of Rudno Lake (at the sampling point). Therefore, the effect on this lake was specifically examined in this study. Sampling was performed from May to September at that site and from July to September 2020 at Rudno Lake. The conducted analysis revealed a massive growth of Aphanizomenon gracile, especially in Rudno Lake. The results showed not only the distinct impact of cyanobacterial bloom on phytoplankton biodiversity but also the presence of microcystins and other cyanopeptides in both sampling points. The maximal total concentration of microcystins (dmMC-RR, MC-RR, dmMC-LR, MC-LR, MC-LY, MC-YR) equaled 57.3 μg/L and the presence of cyanopeptides (aeruginosin, anabaenopeptin) was originally determined in Rudno Lake, August 2021. The presence of these toxins was highlighted in our results for the first time. The same samples from the lake were the most toxic in biotoxicological investigations using the planarian Dugesia tigrina. The performed bioassays proved that D. tigrina is a sensitive bioindicator for cyanotoxins. The physical and chemical indicators of water quality, i.e., color, temperature, total suspended solids, and total nitrogen and phosphorus, showed a significant correlation among each other and towards cyanobacterial abundance and microcystin concentrations.

A Perspective on Removal of Cyanotoxins from Water Through Advanced Oxidation Processes

This perspective discusses the challenges associated with the removal of cyanotoxins from raw water sources for drinking water treatment and the emergence of sulfate radical-based advanced oxidation processes (SR-AOPs) as an effective treatment technique. The advantage of SR-AOPs is that they can be activated using a variety of methods, including heat, UV radiation, and transition metal catalysts, allowing for greater flexibility in treatment design and optimization. In addition, the byproducts of SR-AOPs are less harmful than those generated by •OH-AOPs, which reduces the risk of secondary contamination. SR-AOPs generate sulfate radicals (SO4 •-) that are highly selective to certain organic contaminants and have lower reactivity to background water constituents, resulting in higher efficiency and selectivity of the process. The presence of natural organic matter and transition metals in the natural water body increases the degradation efficiency of SR-AOPs for the cyanotoxins. The bromate formation is also suppressed when the water contaminated with cyanotoxins is treated with SR-AOPs.

Quantitative relationship between cladocera and cyanobacteria: A study based on field survey

Cyanobacteria are a widely distributed phytoplankton that can bloom and produce algal toxins in the eutrophicated water bodies. Large cladocerans are a group of zooplankton that presents higher grazing efficiency on algae. Studying the quantitative relationship between cyanobacteria and cladocera, especially in unmanipulated and unpredictable natural ecosystems in the wild, provides the key to revealing the mechanism of cyanobacterial blooms and finding effective control and prevention methods. This paper proposes a research method to detect the threshold for cladocera to control cyanobacteria by using the path of “edge scatter-segment regression.” Based on the field survey data from 242 sample sites in shallow and slow-flowing rivers in North China, the quantitative relationship between the main groups of zooplankton and phytoplankton was analyzed, and the standard deviation and coefficient of variation were used to test the threshold. This paper finally compares the roles of body size and cladocera abundance in cyanobacteria control. The results showed that in natural ecosystems, cladocera were the best group for controlling the abundance of cyanobacteria among zooplankton. The control effect of cladocera on the abundance of cyanobacteria is not linear but non-linear, and cladocera can only have a stable control effect under certain conditions. The total phosphorus concentrations and water temperatures did not interfere with the analysis results in this paper. In wild ecosystems, the predation process of cladocera on cyanobacteria basically follows the “size-efficiency” hypothesis, but when cladocera successfully control cyanobacterial abundances, it is often due to “win by quantity” rather than “win by size.” The phenomenon of non-linear variation in the cladocera density-cyanobacteria density relationship fits well with the description of the transition from a stable to chaotic state in chaos theory. This paper reveals the complex quantitative relationships of plankton food chains in wild aquatic ecosystems. The ecological threshold detection of the cladocera-cyanobacterial abundances provides a quantitative basis for early warning, control and prevention of cyanobacteria blooms. The non-linear variations in cladocera density-cyanobacteria density revealed in this paper provide insight and evidence for understanding the complex changes in aquatic ecosystems.

Development, Validation and Application of a Targeted LC-MS Method for Quantification of Microcystins and Nodularin: Towards a Better Characterization of Drinking Water

Cyanotoxins can be produced in surface waters by cyanobacterial blooms, mostly during summer and early autumn. Intoxications would result from consumption of water contaminated with the potent hepatotoxins, microcystins and nodularin. Therefore, the WHO has set a guideline value for drinking water quality concerning one congener of microcystin. Consequently, the design of a validated, public reference method to detect and quantify the hepatotoxins in drinking water is necessary. During this study, a method was developed to quantify cyanotoxins (eight microcystin congeners and nodularin) in water using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Additionally, bottled and tap water samples were tested for the presence of cyanotoxins. No cyanotoxins were detected in any of the collected water samples. However, quality controls and the results of a proficiency test show the validity of the method.

A Summer of Cyanobacterial Blooms in Belgian Waterbodies: Microcystin Quantification and Molecular Characterizations

In the context of increasing occurrences of toxic cyanobacterial blooms worldwide, their monitoring in Belgium is currently performed by regional environmental agencies (in two of three regions) using different protocols and is restricted to some selected recreational ponds and lakes. Therefore, a global assessment based on the comparison of existing datasets is not possible. For this study, 79 water samples from a monitoring of five lakes in Wallonia and occasional blooms in Flanders and Brussels, including a canal, were analyzed. A Liquid Chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method allowed to detect and quantify eight microcystin congeners. The mcyE gene was detected using PCR, while dominant cyanobacterial species were identified using 16S RNA amplification and direct sequencing. The cyanobacterial diversity for two water samples was characterized with amplicon sequencing. Microcystins were detected above limit of quantification (LOQ) in 68 water samples, and the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended guideline value for microcystins in recreational water (24 µg L⁻¹) was surpassed in 18 samples. The microcystin concentrations ranged from 0.11 µg L⁻¹ to 2798.81 µg L⁻¹ total microcystin. For 45 samples, the dominance of the genera Microcystis sp., Dolichospermum sp., Aphanizomenon sp., Cyanobium/Synechococcus sp., Planktothrix sp., Romeria sp., Cyanodictyon sp., and Phormidium sp. was shown. Moreover, the mcyE gene was detected in 75.71% of all the water samples.

Four decades of progress in cylindrospermopsin research: The ins and outs of a potent cyanotoxin

The cyanotoxin cylindrospermopsin (CYN), a toxic metabolite from cyanobacteria, is of particular concern due to its cosmopolitan occurrence, aquatic bioaccumulation, and multi-organ toxicity. CYN is the second most often recorded cyanotoxin worldwide, and cases of human morbidity and animal mortality are associated with ingestion of CYN contaminated water. The toxin poses a great challenge for drinking water treatment plants and public health authorities. CYN, with the major toxicity manifested in the liver, is cytotoxic, genotoxic, immunotoxic, neurotoxic and may be carcinogenic. Adverse effects are also reported for endocrine and developmental processes. We present a comprehensive review of CYN over the past four decades since its first reported poisoning event, highlighting its global occurrence, biosynthesis, toxicology, removal, and monitoring. In addition, current data gaps are identified, and future directions for CYN research are outlined. This review is beneficial for understanding the ins and outs of this environmental pollutant, and for robustly assessing health hazards posed by CYN exposure to humans and other organisms.

Limnological Differences in a Two-Basin Lake Help to Explain the Occurrence of Anatoxin-a, Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins, and Microcystins

Chautauqua Lake, New York, is a two-basin lake with a deeper, cooler, and less nutrient-rich Northern Basin, and a warmer, shallower, nutrient-replete Southern Basin. The lake is populated by a complex mixture of cyanobacteria, with toxigenic strains that produce microcystins, anatoxins, and paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins (PSTs). Samples collected from 24 sites were analyzed for these three toxin classes over four years spanning 2014-2017. Concentrations of the three toxin groups varied widely both within and between years. During the study, the mean and median concentrations of microcystins, anatoxin-a, and PSTs were 91 and 4.0 μg/L, 0.62 and 0.33 μg/L, and 32 and 16 μg/L, respectively. Dihydro-anatoxin was only detected once in Chautauqua Lake, while homo-anatoxin was never detected. The Northern Basin had larger basin-wide higher biomass blooms with higher concentrations of toxins relative to the more eutrophied Southern Basin, however blooms in the North Basin were infrequent. Chlorophyll concentrations and toxins in the two basins were correlated with different sets of environmental and physical parameters, suggesting that implementing controls to reduce toxin loads may require applications focused on more than reductions in cyanobacterial bloom density (e.g., reduction of phosphorus inputs), and that lake limnological factors and morphology are important determinants in the selection of an appropriate management strategy. Chautauqua Lake is a drinking water source and is also heavily used for recreation. Drinking water from Chautauqua Lake is unlikely to be a significant source of exposure to cyanotoxins due to the location of the intakes in the deeper North Basin, where there were generally low concentrations of toxins in open water; however, toxin levels in many blooms exceeded the US Environmental Protection Agency's recreational guidelines for exposure to cyanotoxins. Current cyanotoxin monitoring in Chautauqua Lake is focused on microcystins. However, the occurrence of blooms containing neurotoxic cyanotoxins in the absence of the microcystins indicates this restricted monitoring may not be sufficient when aiming to protect against exposure to cyanotoxins. The lake has a large number of tourist visitors; thus, special care should be taken to prevent recreational exposure within this group.