1
|
Yin Y, Sun W, Wang X, Chen J, Zeng H, Hao S, Ren L, Yong L, Luo C, Zou X. The screening method for 39 phytotoxins and mycotoxins in blood and urine with liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2024; 1241:124173. [PMID: 38821004 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2024.124173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2024] [Revised: 05/11/2024] [Accepted: 05/25/2024] [Indexed: 06/02/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Poisonings caused by plant toxins and mycotoxins occur frequently, which do great harm to human health and social public health safety. When a poisoning incident occurs, biological samples are commonly be used to conduct the detection of toxic substances and their metabolites for targeted clinical treatment and incident analysis. OBJECTIVE To establish an efficient and accurate analysis method of 39 phytotoxins and mycotoxins in blood and urine by high performance liquid chromatography quadrupole tandem orbitrap mass spectrometry (HPLC-Orbitrap MS). METHOD After 3 mL of methanol being added to 1 mL blood and urine respectively for extraction and protein precipitation, the supernatant was injected into HPLC-Orbitrap MS for analysis. The phytotoxins and mycotoxins were separated by Hypersil GOLD PFP column with gradient elution using methanol-5 mmol/L ammonium acetate as mobile phase. The data were collected in ESI positive ion mode using Full MS/dd-MS2 for mass spectrometry detection. RESULT The mass database of 39 phytotoxins and mycotoxins was developed, and accurate qualitative analysis can be obtained by matching with the database using the proposed identification criteria. Limit of detections (LODs) were 1.34 × 10-4 ∼ 1.92 ng/mL and 1.92 × 10-4 ∼ 9.80 ng/mL for blood and urine samples, respectively. Limits of quantification (LOQ) of toxins in blood and urine ranged from 4.47 × 10-4 ∼ 6.32 ng/mL and 6.39 × 10-4 ∼ 32.67 ng/mL, respectively. Intra-day relative standard deviations (RSDs) were 0.79 % ∼ 10.90 %, and inter-day RSDs were 1.08 % ∼ 18.93 %. The recoveries can reach 90 % ∼ 110 % with matrix matching calibration curves. CONCLUSION The established method is simple and rapid to operate, which can complete the sample analysis within 30 min, providing technical support for clinical poisoning treatment and public health poisoning analysis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuqi Yin
- Department of Public Health Laboratory Science, West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, People's Republic of China
| | - Weiyang Sun
- Department of Public Health Laboratory Science, West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, People's Republic of China
| | - Xuan Wang
- Department of Public Health Laboratory Science, West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiayue Chen
- Department of Public Health Laboratory Science, West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, People's Republic of China
| | - Hongyan Zeng
- Department of Public Health Laboratory Science, West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, People's Republic of China
| | - Sifan Hao
- Department of Public Health Laboratory Science, West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, People's Republic of China
| | - Lin Ren
- Sichuan Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, Chengdu 610041, People's Republic of China
| | - Li Yong
- Sichuan Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, Chengdu 610041, People's Republic of China.
| | - Chunying Luo
- Chengdu Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, Chengdu 610047, People's Republic of China.
| | - Xiaoli Zou
- Department of Public Health Laboratory Science, West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, People's Republic of China; Food Safety Monitoring and Risk Assessment Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, People's Republic of China.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Liu T, Deng S, Zhang C, Yang X, Shi L, Xu F, Wang S, Wang C. Brassinosteroid signaling regulates phosphate starvation-induced malate secretion in plants. JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE PLANT BIOLOGY 2023; 64:836-842. [PMID: 36579777 DOI: 10.1111/jipb.13241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2022] [Accepted: 03/01/2022] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Inorganic phosphate (Pi) is often limited in soils due to precipitation with iron (Fe) and aluminum (Al). To scavenge heterogeneously distributed phosphorus (P) resources, plants have evolved a local Pi signaling pathway that induces malate secretion to solubilize the occluded Fe-P or Al-P oxides. In this study, we show that Pi limitation impaired brassinosteroid signaling and downregulated BRASSINAZOLE-RESISTANT 1 (BZR1) expression in Arabidopsis thaliana. Exogenous 2,4-epibrassinolide treatment or constitutive activation of BZR1 (in the bzr1-D mutant) significantly reduced primary root growth inhibition under Pi-starvation conditions by downregulating ALUMINUM-ACTIVATED MALATE TRANSPORTER 1 (ALMT1) expression and malate secretion. Furthermore, AtBZR1 competitively suppressed the activator effect of SENSITIVITY TO PROTON RHIZOTOXICITY 1 (STOP1) on ALMT1 expression and malate secretion in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves and Arabidopsis. The ratio of nuclear-localized STOP1 and BZR1 determined ALMT1 expression and malate secretion in Arabidopsis. In addition, BZR1-inhibited malate secretion is conserved in rice (Oryza sativa). Our findings provide insight into plant mechanisms for optimizing the secretion of malate, an important carbon resource, to adapt to Pi-deficiency stress.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tongtong Liu
- Microelement Research Center, College of Resources & Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
- Key Laboratory of Arable Land Conservation (Middle and Lower Reaches of Yangtze River), Ministry of Agriculture, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Suren Deng
- Microelement Research Center, College of Resources & Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
- Key Laboratory of Arable Land Conservation (Middle and Lower Reaches of Yangtze River), Ministry of Agriculture, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Cheng Zhang
- Microelement Research Center, College of Resources & Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
- Key Laboratory of Arable Land Conservation (Middle and Lower Reaches of Yangtze River), Ministry of Agriculture, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Xu Yang
- Microelement Research Center, College of Resources & Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
- Key Laboratory of Arable Land Conservation (Middle and Lower Reaches of Yangtze River), Ministry of Agriculture, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Lei Shi
- Microelement Research Center, College of Resources & Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
- Key Laboratory of Arable Land Conservation (Middle and Lower Reaches of Yangtze River), Ministry of Agriculture, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Fangsen Xu
- Microelement Research Center, College of Resources & Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
- Key Laboratory of Arable Land Conservation (Middle and Lower Reaches of Yangtze River), Ministry of Agriculture, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Sheliang Wang
- Microelement Research Center, College of Resources & Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
- Key Laboratory of Arable Land Conservation (Middle and Lower Reaches of Yangtze River), Ministry of Agriculture, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Chuang Wang
- Microelement Research Center, College of Resources & Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
- Key Laboratory of Arable Land Conservation (Middle and Lower Reaches of Yangtze River), Ministry of Agriculture, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Valenti I, Tini F, Sevarika M, Agazzi A, Beccari G, Bellezza I, Ederli L, Grottelli S, Pasquali M, Romani R, Saracchi M, Covarelli L. Impact of Enniatin and Deoxynivalenol Co-Occurrence on Plant, Microbial, Insect, Animal and Human Systems: Current Knowledge and Future Perspectives. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:271. [PMID: 37104209 PMCID: PMC10144843 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15040271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2023] [Revised: 03/30/2023] [Accepted: 03/31/2023] [Indexed: 04/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Fusarium mycotoxins commonly contaminate agricultural products resulting in a serious threat to both animal and human health. The co-occurrence of different mycotoxins in the same cereal field is very common, so the risks as well as the functional and ecological effects of mycotoxins cannot always be predicted by focusing only on the effect of the single contaminants. Enniatins (ENNs) are among the most frequently detected emerging mycotoxins, while deoxynivalenol (DON) is probably the most common contaminant of cereal grains worldwide. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the simultaneous exposure to these mycotoxins, with emphasis on the combined effects in multiple organisms. Our literature analysis shows that just a few studies on ENN-DON toxicity are available, suggesting the complexity of mycotoxin interactions, which include synergistic, antagonistic, and additive effects. Both ENNs and DON modulate drug efflux transporters, therefore this specific ability deserves to be explored to better understand their complex biological role. Additionally, future studies should investigate the interaction mechanisms of mycotoxin co-occurrence on different model organisms, using concentrations closer to real exposures.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Irene Valenti
- Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Sciences, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy; (I.V.); (M.P.); (M.S.)
| | - Francesco Tini
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Perugia, 06121 Perugia, Italy; (M.S.); (G.B.); (L.E.); (R.R.); (L.C.)
| | - Milos Sevarika
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Perugia, 06121 Perugia, Italy; (M.S.); (G.B.); (L.E.); (R.R.); (L.C.)
| | - Alessandro Agazzi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, University of Milan, 26900 Lodi, Italy;
| | - Giovanni Beccari
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Perugia, 06121 Perugia, Italy; (M.S.); (G.B.); (L.E.); (R.R.); (L.C.)
| | - Ilaria Bellezza
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, 06132 Perugia, Italy; (I.B.); (S.G.)
| | - Luisa Ederli
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Perugia, 06121 Perugia, Italy; (M.S.); (G.B.); (L.E.); (R.R.); (L.C.)
| | - Silvia Grottelli
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, 06132 Perugia, Italy; (I.B.); (S.G.)
| | - Matias Pasquali
- Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Sciences, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy; (I.V.); (M.P.); (M.S.)
| | - Roberto Romani
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Perugia, 06121 Perugia, Italy; (M.S.); (G.B.); (L.E.); (R.R.); (L.C.)
| | - Marco Saracchi
- Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Sciences, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy; (I.V.); (M.P.); (M.S.)
| | - Lorenzo Covarelli
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Perugia, 06121 Perugia, Italy; (M.S.); (G.B.); (L.E.); (R.R.); (L.C.)
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Detection of T-2 Toxin in Wheat and Maize with a Portable Mass Spectrometer. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:toxins15030222. [PMID: 36977113 PMCID: PMC10052129 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15030222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2023] [Revised: 03/09/2023] [Accepted: 03/14/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023] Open
Abstract
T-2 toxin is a mycotoxin routinely found as a contaminant of cereal grains worldwide. A portable mass spectrometer was adapted to enable the detection of T-2 toxin in wheat and maize by APCI-MS. In order to facilitate rapid testing, a rapid cleanup was used. The method was able to detect T-2 toxin in soft white wheat, hard red wheat, and yellow dent maize and could be used to screen for T-2 at levels above 0.2 mg/kg. The HT-2 toxin was only detectable at very high levels (>0.9 mg/kg). Based on these results, the sensitivity was not sufficient to allow the application of the screening method to these commodities at levels recommended by the European Commission. With a cut-off level of 0.107 mg/kg, the method correctly classified nine of ten reference samples of wheat and maize. The results suggest that portable MS detection of T-2 toxin is feasible. However, additional research will be needed to develop an application sensitive enough to meet regulatory requirements.
Collapse
|
5
|
Yang H, Wang W, Zeng L, Liang R, Xiao Q, Zhou Y, Wu W, Deng F. Development and optimization of a method based on dispersive solid phase extraction followed by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole/orbitrap high-resolution mass spectrometry for simultaneous determination of 30 mycotoxins in Citrus products. J Sep Sci 2022; 45:4158-4166. [PMID: 36168883 DOI: 10.1002/jssc.202200584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2022] [Revised: 09/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Citrus, a raw material widely used in food and medicine, is susceptible to fungal infection and its metabolites during growth, transportation, and storage. Thus, monitoring the residual levels of various mycotoxins in Citrus traditional Chinese medicines and related products is crucial. This study described a simple, reliable, and sensitive method for simultaneous identification and quantification of 30 mycotoxins in Citrus products. The method is based on modified quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe extraction and purification followed by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole/orbitrap high-resolution mass spectrometry. The limit of detection ranged from 0.10 to 1.50 μg/kg, and the quantification ranged from 0.25 to 5.00 μg/kg. The recoveries at three spiked levels were 64.90-99.72% and the relative standard deviation was less than 12%. The method was applied to 55 Citrus samples. The detection rates of tentoxin and mycophenolic acid were the highest, reaching 22.7% and with concentration ranges of 0.33-1.03 and 0.57-2.09 μg/kg, respectively. All contamination levels were below the maximum residue limits recommended by the European Commission and China. These results could be used to establish guidelines for screening mycotoxins in Citrus products and the limits of acceptable levels.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Huan Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, P. R. China
| | - Wei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, P. R. China.,Chengdu Institute of Food Inspection, Chengdu, P. R. China
| | - Li Zeng
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, P. R. China
| | - Run Liang
- Chengdu Institute of Food Inspection, Chengdu, P. R. China
| | - Quanwei Xiao
- Chengdu Institute of Food Inspection, Chengdu, P. R. China
| | - Yan Zhou
- Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, P. R. China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Wenlin Wu
- Chengdu Institute of Food Inspection, Chengdu, P. R. China.,Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, P. R. China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Fang Deng
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, P. R. China
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Yang Y, Ren MY, Xu XG, Han Y, Zhao X, Li CH, Zhao ZL. Recent advances in simultaneous detection strategies for multi-mycotoxins in foods. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2022; 64:3932-3960. [PMID: 36330603 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2022.2137775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxin contamination has become a challenge in the field of food safety testing, given the increasing emphasis on food safety in recent years. Mycotoxins are widely distributed, in heavily polluted areas. Food contamination with these toxins is difficult to prevent and control. Mycotoxins, as are small-molecule toxic metabolites produced by several species belonging to the genera Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium growing in food. They are considered teratogenic, carcinogenic, and mutagenic to humans and animals. Food systems are often simultaneously contaminated with multiple mycotoxins. Due to the additive or synergistic toxicological effects caused by the co-existence of multiple mycotoxins, their individual detection requires reliable, accurate, and high-throughput techniques. Currently available, methods for the detection of multiple mycotoxins are mainly based on chromatography, spectroscopy (colorimetry, fluorescence, and surface-enhanced Raman scattering), and electrochemistry. This review provides a comprehensive overview of advances in the multiple detection methods of mycotoxins during the recent 5 years. The principles and features of these techniques are described. The practical applications and challenges associated with assays for multiple detection methods of mycotoxins are summarized. The potential for future development and application is discussed in an effort, to provide standards of references for further research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ying Yang
- School of Quality and Technical Supervision, Hebei University, Baoding, China
- National & Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Metrology Instrument and System, Hebei University, Baoding, China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Energy Metering and Safety Testing Technology, Hebei University, Baoding, China
| | - Meng-Yu Ren
- School of Quality and Technical Supervision, Hebei University, Baoding, China
- National & Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Metrology Instrument and System, Hebei University, Baoding, China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Energy Metering and Safety Testing Technology, Hebei University, Baoding, China
| | - Xiao-Guang Xu
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Hebei University, Baoding, China
| | - Yue Han
- School of Quality and Technical Supervision, Hebei University, Baoding, China
- National & Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Metrology Instrument and System, Hebei University, Baoding, China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Energy Metering and Safety Testing Technology, Hebei University, Baoding, China
| | - Xin Zhao
- School of Quality and Technical Supervision, Hebei University, Baoding, China
- National & Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Metrology Instrument and System, Hebei University, Baoding, China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Energy Metering and Safety Testing Technology, Hebei University, Baoding, China
| | - Chun-Hua Li
- School of Quality and Technical Supervision, Hebei University, Baoding, China
- National & Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Metrology Instrument and System, Hebei University, Baoding, China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Energy Metering and Safety Testing Technology, Hebei University, Baoding, China
| | - Zhi-Lei Zhao
- School of Quality and Technical Supervision, Hebei University, Baoding, China
- National & Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Metrology Instrument and System, Hebei University, Baoding, China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Energy Metering and Safety Testing Technology, Hebei University, Baoding, China
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Ferrari L, Fumagalli F, Rizzi N, Grandi E, Vailati S, Manoni M, Ottoboni M, Cheli F, Pinotti L. An Eight-Year Survey on Aflatoxin B1 Indicates High Feed Safety in Animal Feed and Forages in Northern Italy. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14110763. [PMID: 36356013 PMCID: PMC9699321 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14110763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2022] [Revised: 10/25/2022] [Accepted: 10/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Aflatoxins (AFs) remain the main concern for the agricultural and dairy industries due to their effects on the performances and quality of livestock production. Aflatoxins are always unavoidable and should be monitored. The objective of this paper is to bring to light a significant volume of data on AF contamination in several animal feed ingredients in Northern Italy. The Regional Breeders Association of Lombardy has been conducting a survey program to monitor mycotoxin contamination in animal feeds, and in this paper, we present data relating to AFB1 contamination. In most cases (95%), the concentrations were low enough to ensure compliance with the European Union's (EU's) maximum admitted levels for animal feed ingredients. However, the data show a high variability in AF contamination between different matrices and, within the same matrix, a high variability year over year. High levels of AFs were detected in maize and cotton, especially in the central part of the second decade of this century, i.e., 2015-2018, which has shown a higher risk of AF contamination in feed materials in Northern Italy. Variability due to climate change and the international commodity market affect future prospects to predict the presence of AFs. Supplier monitoring and control and reduced buying of contaminated raw materials, as well as performing analyses of each batch, help reduce AF spread.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Luca Ferrari
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences (DIVAS), Università degli Studi di Milano, Via dell’ Università, 26900 Lodi, Italy
| | - Francesca Fumagalli
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences (DIVAS), Università degli Studi di Milano, Via dell’ Università, 26900 Lodi, Italy
| | - Nicoletta Rizzi
- Associazione Regionale Allevatori della Lombardia (ARAL), Via Kennedy, 26013 Crema, Italy
| | - Elisa Grandi
- Associazione Regionale Allevatori della Lombardia (ARAL), Via Kennedy, 26013 Crema, Italy
| | - Serena Vailati
- Associazione Regionale Allevatori della Lombardia (ARAL), Via Kennedy, 26013 Crema, Italy
| | - Michele Manoni
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences (DIVAS), Università degli Studi di Milano, Via dell’ Università, 26900 Lodi, Italy
| | - Matteo Ottoboni
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences (DIVAS), Università degli Studi di Milano, Via dell’ Università, 26900 Lodi, Italy
| | - Federica Cheli
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences (DIVAS), Università degli Studi di Milano, Via dell’ Università, 26900 Lodi, Italy
- CRC I-WE (Coordinating Research Centre: Innovation for Well-Being and Environment), Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Luciano Pinotti
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences (DIVAS), Università degli Studi di Milano, Via dell’ Università, 26900 Lodi, Italy
- CRC I-WE (Coordinating Research Centre: Innovation for Well-Being and Environment), Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
- Correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Underreported Human Exposure to Mycotoxins: The Case of South Africa. Foods 2022; 11:foods11172714. [PMID: 36076897 PMCID: PMC9455755 DOI: 10.3390/foods11172714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2022] [Revised: 08/31/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
South Africa (SA) is a leading exporter of maize in Africa. The commercial maize farming sector contributes to about 85% of the overall maize produced. More than 33% of South Africa’s population live in rural settlements, and their livelihoods depend entirely on subsistence farming. The subsistence farming system promotes fungal growth and mycotoxin production. This review aims to investigate the exposure levels of the rural population of South Africa to dietary mycotoxins contrary to several reports issued concerning the safety of South African maize. A systematic search was conducted using Google Scholar. Maize is a staple food in South Africa and consumption rates in rural and urban communities are different, for instance, intake may be 1–2 kg/person/day and 400 g/person/day, respectively. Commercial and subsistence maize farming techniques are different. There exist differences influencing the composition of mycotoxins in food commodities from both sectors. Depending on the levels of contamination, dietary exposure of South Africans to mycotoxins is evident in the high levels of fumonisins (FBs) that have been detected in SA home-grown maize. Other potential sources of exposure to mycotoxins, such as carryover effects from animal products and processed foods, were reviewed. The combined effects between FBs and aflatoxins (AFs) have been reported in humans/animals and should not be ignored, as sporadic breakouts of aflatoxicosis have been reported in South Africa. These reports are not a true representation of the entire country as reports from the subsistence-farming rural communities show high incidence of maize contaminated with both AFs and FBs. While commercial farmers and exporters have all the resources needed to perform laboratory analyses of maize products, the greater challenge in combatting mycotoxin exposure is encountered in rural communities with predominantly subsistence farming systems, where conventional food surveillance is lacking.
Collapse
|
9
|
Franco LT, Oliveira CAF. Assessment of occupational and dietary exposures of feed handling workers to mycotoxins in rural areas from São Paulo, Brazil. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 837:155763. [PMID: 35561905 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Revised: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 05/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
In the current study, the occupational and dietary exposures of feed handling workers (N = 28) to aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisins (FBs), ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), toxins T-2 and HT-2 were assessed for the first time in animal-producing farms and feed factories from São Paulo, Brazil. Mycotoxins in food (n = 244) and airborne dust (n = 27), as well as biomarkers in urine (n = 97) samples were determined by liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. FBs were detected in all airborne dust samples, with concentrations ranging from 7.85 to 16,839 ng/m3. The mean probable daily intake (PDI) based on food data were 0.005, 0.769, 0.673 and 0.012 μg/kg of body weight (bw)/day for AFs, FBs, DON and ZEN, respectively. Mean PDI values obtained through urinary biomarkers were 0.29, 0.10, 0.50, 9.72 and 0.10 μg/kg body weight/day for AFB1, DON, OTA, FB1 and ZEN, respectively. The analyses based on urinary biomarkers revealed a potential health concern for OTA and FBs, although no potential health concern was observed with PDI calculated through food data. Results of this trial stress the need for preventive measures to avoid health risks of workers in Brazilian animal-producing farms and feed industries.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Larissa T Franco
- Department of Food Engineering, School of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo, Av. Duque de Caxias Norte, 225, CEP 13635-900 Pirassununga, SP, Brazil
| | - Carlos A F Oliveira
- Department of Food Engineering, School of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo, Av. Duque de Caxias Norte, 225, CEP 13635-900 Pirassununga, SP, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Abstract
This perspective examines four of the primary challenges that the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) presents to farmers, producers, and consumers. DON is one of the big five agriculturally important mycotoxins, resulting from Fusarium infection on grains, such as maize, barley, and wheat. In many countries, such as Canada, DON is the mycotoxin of principal concern because it can lead to major economic losses and stresses on food and feed security. The challenges discussed here include (1) understanding the different toxin profiles of Fusarium graminearum chemotypes/genotypes and the fate of these toxins upon interaction with the host crop, (2) the need for rapid analytical tests to measure DON and any masked or modified toxins in food and feed products, (3) DON exposure assessments in human populations to ensure health and safety, and (4) how contaminated food and feed products can be managed throughout the supply chain system. Despite decades of research, we are continuously learning new knowledge about DON and how best to manage it; however, there is still much work to be done. DON poses a very complex challenge that is being further exacerbated by climate change, evolving fungal populations, and the increased need for global food security.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mark W Sumarah
- London Research and Development Center, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, London, Ontario N5V 4T3, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Providing Biological Plausibility for Exposure–Health Relationships for the Mycotoxins Deoxynivalenol (DON) and Fumonisin B1 (FB1) in Humans Using the AOP Framework. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14040279. [PMID: 35448888 PMCID: PMC9030459 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14040279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2022] [Revised: 04/04/2022] [Accepted: 04/10/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Humans are chronically exposed to the mycotoxins deoxynivalenol (DON) and fumonisin B1 (FB1), as indicated by their widespread presence in foods and occasional exposure in the workplace. This exposure is confirmed by human biomonitoring (HBM) studies on (metabolites of) these mycotoxins in human matrices. We evaluated the exposure–health relationship of the mycotoxins in humans by reviewing the available literature. Since human studies did not allow the identification of unequivocal chronic health effects upon exposure to DON and FB1, the adverse outcome pathway (AOP) framework was used to structure additional mechanistic evidence from in vitro and animal studies on the identified adverse effects. In addition to a preliminary AOP for DON resulting in the adverse outcome (AO) ‘reduced body weight gain’, we developed a more elaborated AOP for FB1, from the molecular initiating event (MIE) ‘inhibition of ceramide synthases’ leading to the AO ‘neural tube defects’. The mechanistic evidence from AOPs can be used to support the limited evidence from human studies, to focus FB1- and DON-related research in humans to identify related early biomarkers of effect. In order to establish additional human exposure–health relationships in the future, recommendations are given to maximize the information that can be obtained from HBM.
Collapse
|
12
|
Tsagkaris AS, Prusova N, Dzuman Z, Pulkrabova J, Hajslova J. Regulated and Non-Regulated Mycotoxin Detection in Cereal Matrices Using an Ultra-High-Performance Liquid Chromatography High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry (UHPLC-HRMS) Method. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:783. [PMID: 34822567 PMCID: PMC8625905 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13110783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2021] [Revised: 11/01/2021] [Accepted: 11/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Cereals represent a widely consumed food commodity that might be contaminated by mycotoxins, resulting not only in potential consumer health risks upon dietary exposure but also significant financial losses due to contaminated batch disposal. Thus, continuous improvement of the performance characteristics of methods to enable an effective monitoring of such contaminants in food supply is highly needed. In this study, an ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to a hybrid quadrupole orbitrap mass analyzer (UHPLC-q-Orbitrap MS) method was optimized and validated in wheat, maize and rye flour matrices. Nineteen analytes were monitored, including both regulated mycotoxins, e.g., ochratoxin A (OTA) or deoxynivalenol (DON), and non-regulated mycotoxins, such as ergot alkaloids (EAs), which are analytes that are expected to be regulated soon in the EU. Low limits of quantification (LOQ) at the part per trillion level were achieved as well as wide linear ranges (four orders of magnitude) and recovery rates within the 68-104% range. Overall, the developed method attained fit-for-purpose results and it highlights the applicability of high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) detection in mycotoxin food analysis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aristeidis S. Tsagkaris
- Department of Food Analysis and Nutrition, Faculty of Food and Biochemical Technology, University of Chemistry and Technology, 16628 Prague, Czech Republic; (N.P.); (J.P.); (J.H.)
| | | | - Zbynek Dzuman
- Department of Food Analysis and Nutrition, Faculty of Food and Biochemical Technology, University of Chemistry and Technology, 16628 Prague, Czech Republic; (N.P.); (J.P.); (J.H.)
| | | | | |
Collapse
|