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Maphaisa TC, Akinmoladun OF, Adelusi OA, Mwanza M, Fon F, Tangni E, Njobeh PB. Advances in mycotoxin detection techniques and the crucial role of reference material in ensuring food safety. A review. Food Chem Toxicol 2025; 200:115387. [PMID: 40081789 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2025.115387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2025] [Revised: 03/09/2025] [Accepted: 03/10/2025] [Indexed: 03/16/2025]
Abstract
Mycotoxins, toxic secondary metabolites produced by fungi, pose a significant threat to food safety and human health. The occurrence of mycotoxins in food commodities necessitates accurate and reliable detection methods. Advanced detection techniques, such as chromatographic techniques and immunochemical assays, have improved sensitivity and specificity. However, the lack of standardized reference material, particularly in less privileged countries, hinders method validation and proficiency testing, ultimately affecting mycotoxin testing and regulation. Moreover, these techniques are complex as they require specialized equipment, and well-trained personnel, thus limiting their practical applications. This comprehensive review provides an up-to-date overview of the occurrence of mycotoxins and recent advancements in detection methods. It examines the crucial role of mycotoxin standards as reference materials for ensuring reliable results in mycotoxins analysis in agriculture commodities. The review addresses emerging challenges, knowledge gaps, and future research directions in mycotoxin detection and reference material development. By synthesizing existing literature, this review aims to provide valuable resources for researchers, policymakers, and other stakeholders in food safety, highlighting the importance of integrated approaches to mitigate mycotoxin contamination and ensuring food safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiisetso Colleen Maphaisa
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, P.O Box 17011, Doornfontein Campus, 2028, Gauteng, South Africa.
| | - Oluwakamisi Festus Akinmoladun
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, P.O Box 17011, Doornfontein Campus, 2028, Gauteng, South Africa
| | - Oluwasola Abayomi Adelusi
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, P.O Box 17011, Doornfontein Campus, 2028, Gauteng, South Africa
| | - Mulanda Mwanza
- Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Private Bag X2046, Mmabatho, 2735, South Africa
| | - Fabian Fon
- Department of Agriculture University of Zululand, Private Bag X3886, KwaDlangezwa, South Africa
| | - Emmanuel Tangni
- Sciensano, Chemical and Physical Health Risks Organic Contaminants and Additives, Toxins Unit, Leuvensesteenweg 17, 3080, Tervuren, Belgium
| | - Patrick Berka Njobeh
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, P.O Box 17011, Doornfontein Campus, 2028, Gauteng, South Africa
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Chen L, Wu J, Zhang S, Liu X, Zhao M, Guo W, Zhang J, Chen W, Liu Z, Deng M, Wu Q. Occurrence and Diversity of Fungi and Their Mycotoxin Production in Common Edible and Medicinal Substances from China. J Fungi (Basel) 2025; 11:212. [PMID: 40137250 PMCID: PMC11943191 DOI: 10.3390/jof11030212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2025] [Revised: 02/28/2025] [Accepted: 03/01/2025] [Indexed: 03/27/2025] Open
Abstract
Edible and medicinal substances can be contaminated by fungi during harvesting, processing, and storage, leading to mycotoxin production and quality deterioration. The distribution of mycotoxigenic fungi in edible and medicinal substances was investigated in this study. Fungi and mycotoxins were detected in 163 commercially available edible and medicinal substances using standard microbiological techniques and high-performance liquid chromatography. A total of 92.0% of samples contained fungi (0.5-5.3 lg colony-forming units (CFU)·g-1); 208 fungal strains belonging to 16 genera were identified, predominantly Aspergillus and Penicillium. Aspergillus section Nigri (30.3%) produced fumonisin B2, which was distributed mainly in radix and rhizome samples. Thirteen samples had mycotoxins, of which ochratoxin A was the most common, followed by aflatoxins and zearalenone (ZEN). One Nelumbinis semen sample contained 10.75 μg·kg-1 AFB1, and one Raisin tree semen sample contained 484.30 μg·kg-1 ZEN, which exceeded regulatory limits in Europe and China. These findings highlight the potential risks associated with fungal contamination and mycotoxins in edible and medicinal substances. Enhanced quality control measures are essential to reduce contamination during harvesting, processing, and storage. Expanded mycotoxin screening, improved preservation techniques, and stricter regulatory standards need to be implemented to ensure consumer safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling Chen
- College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510640, China;
- National Health Commission Science and Technology Innovation Platform for Nutrition and Safety of Microbial Food, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Safety and Health, State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Detection Center of Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510070, China; (J.W.); (S.Z.); (X.L.); (M.Z.); (W.G.); (J.Z.); (W.C.); (Z.L.); (M.D.)
| | - Junhui Wu
- National Health Commission Science and Technology Innovation Platform for Nutrition and Safety of Microbial Food, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Safety and Health, State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Detection Center of Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510070, China; (J.W.); (S.Z.); (X.L.); (M.Z.); (W.G.); (J.Z.); (W.C.); (Z.L.); (M.D.)
| | - Shuhong Zhang
- National Health Commission Science and Technology Innovation Platform for Nutrition and Safety of Microbial Food, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Safety and Health, State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Detection Center of Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510070, China; (J.W.); (S.Z.); (X.L.); (M.Z.); (W.G.); (J.Z.); (W.C.); (Z.L.); (M.D.)
| | - Xinqi Liu
- National Health Commission Science and Technology Innovation Platform for Nutrition and Safety of Microbial Food, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Safety and Health, State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Detection Center of Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510070, China; (J.W.); (S.Z.); (X.L.); (M.Z.); (W.G.); (J.Z.); (W.C.); (Z.L.); (M.D.)
| | - Meiping Zhao
- National Health Commission Science and Technology Innovation Platform for Nutrition and Safety of Microbial Food, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Safety and Health, State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Detection Center of Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510070, China; (J.W.); (S.Z.); (X.L.); (M.Z.); (W.G.); (J.Z.); (W.C.); (Z.L.); (M.D.)
| | - Weipeng Guo
- National Health Commission Science and Technology Innovation Platform for Nutrition and Safety of Microbial Food, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Safety and Health, State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Detection Center of Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510070, China; (J.W.); (S.Z.); (X.L.); (M.Z.); (W.G.); (J.Z.); (W.C.); (Z.L.); (M.D.)
| | - Jumei Zhang
- National Health Commission Science and Technology Innovation Platform for Nutrition and Safety of Microbial Food, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Safety and Health, State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Detection Center of Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510070, China; (J.W.); (S.Z.); (X.L.); (M.Z.); (W.G.); (J.Z.); (W.C.); (Z.L.); (M.D.)
| | - Wei Chen
- National Health Commission Science and Technology Innovation Platform for Nutrition and Safety of Microbial Food, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Safety and Health, State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Detection Center of Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510070, China; (J.W.); (S.Z.); (X.L.); (M.Z.); (W.G.); (J.Z.); (W.C.); (Z.L.); (M.D.)
| | - Zhenjie Liu
- National Health Commission Science and Technology Innovation Platform for Nutrition and Safety of Microbial Food, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Safety and Health, State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Detection Center of Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510070, China; (J.W.); (S.Z.); (X.L.); (M.Z.); (W.G.); (J.Z.); (W.C.); (Z.L.); (M.D.)
| | - Meiqing Deng
- National Health Commission Science and Technology Innovation Platform for Nutrition and Safety of Microbial Food, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Safety and Health, State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Detection Center of Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510070, China; (J.W.); (S.Z.); (X.L.); (M.Z.); (W.G.); (J.Z.); (W.C.); (Z.L.); (M.D.)
| | - Qingping Wu
- College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510640, China;
- National Health Commission Science and Technology Innovation Platform for Nutrition and Safety of Microbial Food, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Safety and Health, State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Detection Center of Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510070, China; (J.W.); (S.Z.); (X.L.); (M.Z.); (W.G.); (J.Z.); (W.C.); (Z.L.); (M.D.)
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Llorens P, Juan-García A, Pardo O, Arjona-Mudarra P, Martí-Quijal FJ, Esteve-Turrillas FA, Barba FJ, Chiacchio MF, Vitaglione P, Moltó JC, Juan C. Bioavailability study of OTA, ZEN, and AFB1 along with bioactive compounds from tiger nut beverage and its by-products. Food Res Int 2025; 200:115458. [PMID: 39779105 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2024.115458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2024] [Revised: 11/14/2024] [Accepted: 11/26/2024] [Indexed: 01/11/2025]
Abstract
Mycotoxins pose significant health risks due to their prevalence in food products and severe health implications, including carcinogenicity. This study investigates the bioavailability of mycotoxins aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), ochratoxin A (OTA), and zearalenone (ZEN) individually and combined, in the presence of identified polyphenols from tiger nut beverage (TNB) and tiger nut by-product (TNBP) using the in vitro model Caco-2 cells, which simulates the human intestinal barrier. The objective is to understand how bioactive compounds from TNBP can mitigate the effects of AFB1, OTA and ZEN (and their combination) by bioavailability interference, contributing to safer food products and innovative food safety strategies. In vitro gastrointestinal digestion was simulated using the INFOGEST protocol, followed by a bioavailability assessment through transepithelial transport assays in differentiated Caco-2 cells. OTA bioavailability significantly increased in the presence of TNB and TNBP, suggesting interactions that enhance its intestinal absorption. AFB1 maintained high bioavailability across all conditions (up to 83%), while ZEN showed a general decrease (up to 24%), thus indicating a potential protective effect of TNB and TNBP against ZEN toxicity. Regarding the effect of mycotoxins on the bioavailability of polyphenols from TNB and TNBP, a general enhancement was observed for TNB consistently showing higher bioavailability than for TNBP. Notably, OTA and ZEN significantly increased polyphenols bioavailability, reaching up to 79.2% in TNB. Individual polyphenol generally showed a notable reduction in trans-ferulic acid and an increase in trans-cinnamic acid in the presence of mycotoxins. For TNBP, individual mycotoxins generally enhanced polyphenol bioavailability, with AFB1 showing the most significant increase. In conclusion, tiger nut products show promise as sources of bioactive compounds for mitigating mycotoxin toxicity in food products. However, further studies are necessary to clarify these interactions and optimize the conditions of use for their safe and effective application in the food industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Llorens
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Department of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Food Science, Toxicology and Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Avda. Vicent Andrés Estellés, s/n, 46100 Burjassot, Spain
| | - A Juan-García
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Department of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Food Science, Toxicology and Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Avda. Vicent Andrés Estellés, s/n, 46100 Burjassot, Spain.
| | - O Pardo
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Valencia, Doctor Moliner 50, Burjassot 46100, Spain
| | - P Arjona-Mudarra
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Valencia, Doctor Moliner 50, Burjassot 46100, Spain
| | - F J Martí-Quijal
- Research Group in Innovative Technologies for Sustainable Food (ALISOST), Department of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Food Science, Toxicology and Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitat de València, Avda. Vicent Andrés Estellés, s/n, 46100 Burjassot, Valencia, Spain
| | - F A Esteve-Turrillas
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Valencia, Doctor Moliner 50, Burjassot 46100, Spain
| | - F J Barba
- Research Group in Innovative Technologies for Sustainable Food (ALISOST), Department of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Food Science, Toxicology and Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitat de València, Avda. Vicent Andrés Estellés, s/n, 46100 Burjassot, Valencia, Spain
| | - M F Chiacchio
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, 80055 Portici, Italy
| | - P Vitaglione
- Research Group in Innovative Technologies for Sustainable Food (ALISOST), Department of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Food Science, Toxicology and Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitat de València, Avda. Vicent Andrés Estellés, s/n, 46100 Burjassot, Valencia, Spain
| | - J C Moltó
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Department of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Food Science, Toxicology and Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Avda. Vicent Andrés Estellés, s/n, 46100 Burjassot, Spain
| | - C Juan
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Department of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Food Science, Toxicology and Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Avda. Vicent Andrés Estellés, s/n, 46100 Burjassot, Spain
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Okechukwu VO, Kappo AP, Njobeh PB, Mamo MA. Morphed aflaxotin concentration produced by Aspergillus flavus strain VKMN22 on maize grains inoculated on agar culture. FOOD CHEMISTRY. MOLECULAR SCIENCES 2024; 8:100197. [PMID: 38468716 PMCID: PMC10925925 DOI: 10.1016/j.fochms.2024.100197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2023] [Revised: 02/13/2024] [Accepted: 02/25/2024] [Indexed: 03/13/2024]
Abstract
This study identified and monitored the levels of aflatoxins (B1 and B2) produced by Aspergillus flavus isolate VKMN22 (OP355447) in maize samples sourced from a local shop in Johannesburg, South Africa. Maize samples underwent controlled incubation after initial rinsing, and isolates were identified through morphological and molecular methods. In another experiment, autoclaved maize grains were intentionally re-inoculated with the identified fungal isolate using spore suspension (106 spore/mL), after which 1 g of the contaminated maize sample was inoculated on PDA media and cultured for seven days. The aflatoxin concentrations in the A. flavus contaminated maize inoculated on culture media was monitored over seven weeks and then measured using liquid chromatography-mass spectroscopy (LC-MS). Results confirmed the successful isolation of A. flavus strain VKMN22 with accession number OP355447, which consistently produced higher levels of AFB1 compared to AFB2. AF concentrations increased from week one to five, then declined in week six and seven. AFB1 levels ranged from 594.3 to 9295.33 µg/kg (week 1-5) and then reduced from 5719.67 to 2005 µg/kg in week six and seven), while AFB2 levels ranged from 4.92 to 901.67 µg/kg (weeks 1-5) and then degraded to 184 µg/kg in week six then 55.33 µg/kg (weeks 6-7). Levene's tests confirmed significantly higher mean concentrations of AFB1 compared to AFB2 (p ≤ 0.005). The study emphasizes the importance of consistent biomonitoring for a dynamic understanding of AF contamination, informing accurate prevention and control strategies in agricultural commodities thereby safeguarding food safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viola O. Okechukwu
- Department of Biochemistry, Auckland Park Kingsway Campus, University of Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Abidemi P. Kappo
- Department of Biochemistry, Auckland Park Kingsway Campus, University of Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Patrick B. Njobeh
- Department of Food and Biotechnology, PO Box 17011, Doornfontein Campus, University of Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Messai A. Mamo
- Department of Chemical Sciences, PO Box 2028, Doornfontein Campus, University of Johannesburg, South Africa
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Rangel-Muñoz EJ, Valdivia-Flores AG, Cruz-Vázquez C, de-Luna-López MC, Hernández-Valdivia E, Vitela-Mendoza I, Medina-Esparza L, Quezada-Tristán T. Increased Dissemination of Aflatoxin- and Zearalenone-Producing Aspergillus spp. and Fusarium spp. during Wet Season via Houseflies on Dairy Farms in Aguascalientes, Mexico. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:302. [PMID: 39057942 PMCID: PMC11281273 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16070302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2024] [Revised: 06/26/2024] [Accepted: 06/27/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Crops contamination with aflatoxins (AFs) and zearalenone (ZEA) threaten human and animal health; these mycotoxins are produced by several species of Aspergillus and Fusarium. The objective was to evaluate under field conditions the influence of the wet season on the dissemination of AF- and ZEA-producing fungi via houseflies collected from dairy farms. Ten dairy farms distributed in the semi-arid Central Mexican Plateau were selected. Flies were collected in wet and dry seasons at seven points on each farm using entomological traps. Fungi were isolated from fly carcasses via direct seeding with serial dilutions and wet chamber methods. The production of AFs and ZEA from pure isolates was quantified using indirect competitive ELISA. A total of 693 Aspergillus spp. and 1274 Fusarium spp. isolates were obtained, of which 58.6% produced AFs and 50.0% produced ZEA (491 ± 122; 2521 ± 1295 µg/kg). Houseflies and both fungal genera were invariably present, but compared to the dry season, there was a higher abundance of flies as well as AF- and ZEA-producing fungi in the wet season (p < 0.001; 45.3/231 flies/trap; 8.6/29.6% contaminated flies). These results suggest that rainy-weather conditions on dairy farms increase the spread of AF- and ZEA-producing Aspergillus spp. and Fusarium spp. through houseflies and the incorporation of their mycotoxins into the food chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika Janet Rangel-Muñoz
- Departamento de Ciencias Veterinarias, Centro de Ciencias Agropecuarias, Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes 20131, Mexico; (E.J.R.-M.); (M.C.d.-L.-L.); (E.H.-V.); (T.Q.-T.)
| | - Arturo Gerardo Valdivia-Flores
- Departamento de Ciencias Veterinarias, Centro de Ciencias Agropecuarias, Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes 20131, Mexico; (E.J.R.-M.); (M.C.d.-L.-L.); (E.H.-V.); (T.Q.-T.)
| | - Carlos Cruz-Vázquez
- División de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación, Tecnológico Nacional de México, Instituto Tecnológico El Llano Aguascalientes, km 18 carretera Aguascalientes—San Luis Potosí, El Llano, Aguascalientes 20330, Mexico; (C.C.-V.); (I.V.-M.)
| | - María Carolina de-Luna-López
- Departamento de Ciencias Veterinarias, Centro de Ciencias Agropecuarias, Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes 20131, Mexico; (E.J.R.-M.); (M.C.d.-L.-L.); (E.H.-V.); (T.Q.-T.)
| | - Emmanuel Hernández-Valdivia
- Departamento de Ciencias Veterinarias, Centro de Ciencias Agropecuarias, Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes 20131, Mexico; (E.J.R.-M.); (M.C.d.-L.-L.); (E.H.-V.); (T.Q.-T.)
| | - Irene Vitela-Mendoza
- División de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación, Tecnológico Nacional de México, Instituto Tecnológico El Llano Aguascalientes, km 18 carretera Aguascalientes—San Luis Potosí, El Llano, Aguascalientes 20330, Mexico; (C.C.-V.); (I.V.-M.)
| | - Leticia Medina-Esparza
- División de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación, Tecnológico Nacional de México, Instituto Tecnológico El Llano Aguascalientes, km 18 carretera Aguascalientes—San Luis Potosí, El Llano, Aguascalientes 20330, Mexico; (C.C.-V.); (I.V.-M.)
| | - Teódulo Quezada-Tristán
- Departamento de Ciencias Veterinarias, Centro de Ciencias Agropecuarias, Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes 20131, Mexico; (E.J.R.-M.); (M.C.d.-L.-L.); (E.H.-V.); (T.Q.-T.)
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Adelusi OA, Oladeji OM, Gbashi S, Njobeh PB. Influence of geographical location on the distribution of heavy metals in dairy cattle feeds sourced from two South African provinces. Food Sci Nutr 2024; 12:4223-4232. [PMID: 38873466 PMCID: PMC11167146 DOI: 10.1002/fsn3.4082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2023] [Revised: 02/20/2024] [Accepted: 02/27/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024] Open
Abstract
The contamination of feed and food by heavy metals represents a significant concern for the health of both animals and humans. This study investigates the impact of geographical location on heavy metal distribution in dairy cattle feeds sourced from Free State and Limpopo, South Africa (SA). A total of 70 feed samples (40 from Free State and 30 from Limpopo) were collected from 2018 to 2019 and analyzed for heavy metals, including cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), lead (Pb), and chromium (Cr), using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Our findings revealed the presence of Cr, Cu, and Zn in the feeds, but at levels below the FAO/WHO permissible limits. Additionally, As, Cd, and Pb concentrations in the feeds were below the Limit of Detections (LODs). Generally, Cr concentrations (0.032-0.454 mg/kg) identified in the Free State samples were lower than those found in Limpopo (0.038-1.459 mg/kg), while the levels of Cu (0.092-4.898 mg/kg) and Zn (0.39-13.871 mg/kg) recorded in the Free State samples were higher than those from Limpopo [(0.126-3.467 mg/kg) and (0.244-13.767 mg/kg), respectively]. According to independent sample t-tests, Cu and Zn levels were substantially higher (p ≤ .05) in Free State feeds compared to Limpopo, while Limpopo feeds exhibited significantly higher (p ≤ .05) Cr concentrations than Free State feeds. Despite the low recorded heavy metal levels, regular monitoring of these elements in cow diets across all SA provinces is essential for ensuring the well-being of animals and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oluwasola Abayomi Adelusi
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of ScienceUniversity of JohannesburgJohannesburgSouth Africa
| | - Oluwaseun Mary Oladeji
- Department of Biology and Environmental Science, Faculty of ScienceSefako Makgatho Health Sciences UniversityPretoriaSouth Africa
| | - Sefater Gbashi
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of ScienceUniversity of JohannesburgJohannesburgSouth Africa
| | - Patrick Berka Njobeh
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of ScienceUniversity of JohannesburgJohannesburgSouth Africa
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Li W, Chen Z, Li X, Li X, Hui Y, Chen W. The Biosynthesis, Structure Diversity and Bioactivity of Sterigmatocystins and Aflatoxins: A Review. J Fungi (Basel) 2024; 10:396. [PMID: 38921382 PMCID: PMC11204465 DOI: 10.3390/jof10060396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2024] [Revised: 05/21/2024] [Accepted: 05/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Sterigmatocystins and aflatoxins are a group of mycotoxins mainly isolated from fungi of the genera Aspergillus. Since the discovery of sterigmatocystins in 1954 and aflatoxins in 1961, many scholars have conducted a series of studies on their structural identification, synthesis and biological activities. Studies have shown that sterigmatocystins and aflatoxins have a wide range of biological activities such as antitumour, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antiplasmodial, etc. The sterigmatocystins and aflatoxins had been shown to be hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic in animals. This review attempts to give a comprehensive summary of progress on the chemical structural features, synthesis, and bioactivity of sterigmatocystins and aflatoxins reported from 1954 to April 2024. A total of 72 sterigmatocystins and 20 aflatoxins are presented in this review. This paper reviews the chemical diversity and potential activity and toxicity of sterigmatocystins and aflatoxins, enhances the understanding of sterigmatocystins and aflatoxins that adversely affect humans and animals, and provides ideas for their prevention, research and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenxing Li
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Medicinal Resource Chemistry of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China; (W.L.); (Z.C.); (X.L.); (X.L.)
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Medicinal Plant Chemistry of Hainan Province, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China
| | - Zhaoxia Chen
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Medicinal Resource Chemistry of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China; (W.L.); (Z.C.); (X.L.); (X.L.)
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Medicinal Plant Chemistry of Hainan Province, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China
| | - Xize Li
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Medicinal Resource Chemistry of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China; (W.L.); (Z.C.); (X.L.); (X.L.)
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Medicinal Plant Chemistry of Hainan Province, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China
| | - Xinrui Li
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Medicinal Resource Chemistry of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China; (W.L.); (Z.C.); (X.L.); (X.L.)
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Medicinal Plant Chemistry of Hainan Province, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China
| | - Yang Hui
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Medicinal Resource Chemistry of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China; (W.L.); (Z.C.); (X.L.); (X.L.)
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Medicinal Plant Chemistry of Hainan Province, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China
| | - Wenhao Chen
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Medicinal Resource Chemistry of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China; (W.L.); (Z.C.); (X.L.); (X.L.)
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Medicinal Plant Chemistry of Hainan Province, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China
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Okechukwu VO, Adelusi OA, Kappo AP, Njobeh PB, Mamo MA. Aflatoxins: Occurrence, biosynthesis, mechanism of action and effects, conventional/emerging detection techniques. Food Chem 2024; 436:137775. [PMID: 37866099 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.137775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2023] [Revised: 10/11/2023] [Accepted: 10/14/2023] [Indexed: 10/24/2023]
Abstract
Aflatoxins (AFs) are toxic secondary metabolites prevalent in various food and agricultural products, posing significant challenges to global food safety. The detection and quantification of AFs through high-precision analytical techniques are crucial in mitigating AF contamination levels and associated health risks. Variousmethods,including conventional and emerging techniques, have been developed for detecting and quantifyingAFsinfood samples. This review provides an in-depth analysis of the global occurrence of AF in food commodities, covering their biosynthesis, mode of action, and effects on humans and animals. Additionally, the review discusses different conventional strategies, including chromatographic and immunochemical approaches, for AF quantification and identification in food samples. Furthermore, emerging AF detection strategies, such as solid-state gas sensors and electronic nose technologies, along with their applications, limitations, and future perspectives, were reviewed. Sample purification, along with their respective advantages and limitations, are also discussed herein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viola O Okechukwu
- Department of Biochemistry, Auckland Park Kingsway Campus, University of Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Oluwasola A Adelusi
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, PO Box 17011, Doornfontein Campus, University of Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Abidemi P Kappo
- Department of Biochemistry, Auckland Park Kingsway Campus, University of Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Patrick B Njobeh
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, PO Box 17011, Doornfontein Campus, University of Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Messai A Mamo
- Department of Chemical Sciences, PO Box 2028, Doornfontein Campus, University of Johannesburg, South Africa.
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