Natural Occurrence of Regulated and Emerging Mycotoxins in Wheat Grains and Assessment of the Risks from Dietary Mycotoxins Exposure in China

Comprehensive identification and risk assessment of regulated and emerging mycotoxins in infant foods and related raw materials and risk management advice: A case study of an infant food company in China

This study evaluated muti-mycotoxins in 199 samples including processed infant foods and raw materials collected randomly from an infant food company and assessed their role in dietary exposure in infants and young children via probabilistic risk assessment. Approximately 79.6 % (74/93) of the processed infant foods and 65.1 % (69/106) of the raw materials were contaminated by mycotoxins, with a mean occurrence level of 3.66-321.8 µg/kg. Deoxynivalenol (DON) and tenuazonic acid (TeA) were the more prevalent mycotoxins detected, based on their higher frequencies and levels across samples. Co-occurrence of more than two mycotoxins was detected in 61.3 % (57/93) of the processed infant foods and 53.8 % (57/106) of the raw materials. Wheat flour and derived products (e.g., infant noodles and infant biscuits) were contaminated with higher contamination levels and a greater variety of mycotoxins than other samples (e.g., infant cereal and rice grains). The estimated daily exposure to OTA, DON, ZEN, and TEN was lower than the corresponding reference health-based guidance values, indicating acceptable health risks. However, the estimated dietary exposure to alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), alternariol (AOH), and tenuazonic acid (TeA) exceeded the corresponding thresholds of toxicological concern values, indicating potential dietary intake risks. Among the various samples, cereals and cereal-based infant foods emerged as the primary contributors to mycotoxin exposure. Further research is advised to address the uncertainties surrounding the toxicity associated with emerging Alternaria mycotoxins and to conduct cumulative risk assessments concerning multiple mycotoxin exposure in infants and young children.

The sweating process promotes toxigenic fungi expansion and increases the risk of combined contamination of mycotoxins in Radix Dipsaci

Sweating is one of the most important processing methods of Chinese medicinal herbs. However, the high temperature and humidity environment required for sweating Chinese medicinal herbs makes it very easy for fungi to breed, especially toxigenic fungi. The mycotoxins produced by these fungi will then contaminate the Chinese medicinal herbs. In this study, we explored the changes in mycobiota, toxigenic fungi, and mycotoxins with and without sweating in Radix Dipsaci (RD), a typical representative of traditional Chinese medicine that requires processing through sweating. We also isolated and identified the toxigenic fungi from RD, whether they were subjected to sweating treatment or not, and examined their toxigenic genes and ability. The results showed that the detection rate of mycotoxins (aflatoxins, ochratoxins, zearalenone, and T-2 toxin) in RD with sweating was 36%, which was 2.25-fold higher than that in RD without sweating. We also detected T-2 toxin in the RD with sweating, whereas it was not found in the RD without sweating. The sweating process altered the fungal composition and increased the abundance of Fusarium and Aspergillus in RD. Aspergillus and Fusarium were the most frequently contaminating fungi in the RD. Morphological and molecular identification confirmed the presence of key toxigenic fungal strains in RD samples, including A. flavus, A. westerdijkiae, F. oxysporum and F. graminearum. These four fungi, respectively, carried AflR, PKS, Tri7, and PKS14, which were key genes for the biosynthesis of aflatoxins, ochratoxins, zearalenone, and T-2 toxin. The toxigenic ability of these four fungal strains was verified in different matrices. We also found that A. flavus, A. westerdijkiae, and F. oxysporum were isolated in RD both with sweating and without sweating, but their isolation frequency was significantly higher in the RD with sweating than in the RD without sweating. F. graminearum was not isolated from RD without sweating, but it was isolated from RD with sweating. These findings suggest that the sweating process promotes the expansion of toxigenic fungi and increases the risk of combined mycotoxin contamination in RD.

Mycotoxins in grains (products), Gansu province, China and risk assessment

This study aimed to estimate the dietary exposure towards mycotoxins of residents in Gansu province, China, from 2014-2020 through surveillance data on mycotoxins in grains and grain products. Fumonisin B1 (FB1), Deoxynivalenol (DON), 3- and 15-Acetyl-deoxynivalenol (3-ADON and 15-ADON), Tentoxin (TEN), Tenuazonic acid (TeA) and Zearalenone (ZEN) in 863 grains and grain products were detected by HPLC-MS and UPLC-MS. DON was the most detected mycotoxin of all samples. For women, the average dietary exposure to DON was 1.49 μg/kg bw/day, with 55.8% of the individuals eating dried noodles exceeding tolerable daily intake. The hazard quotient values were 1.24-12.60, so greater than 1 for DON at the average, 90th percentile, 95th percentile, and maximum levels: 44.6% of the HQ values for men and 45.7% for women were greater than 1.

Investigation on the presence of mycotoxins in seed hemp varieties

In recent years, the cultivation of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) in Europe has aroused interest among farmers for the potential market opportunities of its products; its cultivation has increased from 20,450 ha in 2015 to 33,020 ha in 2022. Thanks to the great versatility of this crop, there are opportunities in the food and nutraceutical fields (gluten free), cosmetics, energy and industrial sectors. As for several crops, hemp seeds may also be contaminated by fungal pathogens compromising its quality and safety. Considering the recent interest of consumers in using hemp for food purposes, in the present work, a small survey on mycotoxin contamination was carried out during 2018-2022 in hemp seed samples cultivated in Italy for food use. The results showed a limited occurrence of the most common regulated mycotoxins (aflatoxins [AFs], fumonisins [FBs], ochratoxin A [OTA], deoxynivalenol [DON] and zearalenone), but very high levels of alternariols, reaching a maximum value of 38510, 308, 226 and 288 ug/kg for tenuazonic acid [TeA], tentoxin [TEN], alternariol [AOH] and alternariol monoether, respectively. In the same period, an investigation carried out in an experimental field showed that fungal contamination and mycotoxin occurrence were influenced by different meteorological conditions and different varieties.

Advancing food safety risk assessment in China: development of new approach methodologies (NAMs)

Novel techniques and methodologies are being developed to advance food safety risk assessment into the next-generation. Considering the shortcomings of traditional animal testing, new approach methodologies (NAMs) will be the main tools for the next-generation risk assessment (NGRA), using non-animal methodologies such as in vitro and in silico approaches. The United States Environmental Protection Agency and the European Food Safety Authority have established work plans to encourage the development and application of NAMs in NGRA. Currently, NAMs are more commonly used in research than in regulatory risk assessment. China is also developing NAMs for NGRA but without a comprehensive review of the current work. This review summarizes major NAM-related research articles from China and highlights the China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment (CFSA) as the primary institution leading the implementation of NAMs in NGRA in China. The projects of CFSA on NAMs such as the Food Toxicology Program and the strategies for implementing NAMs in NGRA are outlined. Key issues and recommendations, such as discipline development and team building, are also presented to promote NAMs development in China and worldwide.