Orthopoxvirus Seroprevalence in Cats and Veterinary Personnel in North-Eastern Italy in 2011

Zoonotic risks of pathogens from dairy cattle and their milk-borne transmission

Dairy products are major sources of high-quality protein and bioavailable nutrients and dairy production contributes to local, regional and national-level economies. Consumption of raw milk and raw milk products does, however, carry a zoonotic risk, as does direct contact with cattle by farm husbandry staff and other employees. This review will mainly focus on the latter, and deal with it from the standpoint of a well-developed dairy industry, using the example of the Netherlands. With regard to dairy cattle, the main bacterial pathogens are Salmonella spp., Listeria monocytogenes and Leptospira hardjo as well as Brucella abortus and Chlamydia abortus. The main viral pathogens associated with dairy are Rift Valley fever virus, rabies virus, cowpox virus and vaccinia virus. The main parasitological infections are Echinococcus granulosis, Cryptosporidium parvum and Giardia duodenalis, however, the last mentioned have mainly swimming pools as sources of human infection. Finally ectoparasites such as lice and mites and Trichophyton verrucosum may affect employees. Some pathogens may cause health problems due to contamination. Bacterial pathogens of importance that may contaminate milk are Campylolobacter jejuni, Escherichia coli, Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis, Leptospira hardjo and Salmonella typhimurium. Excretion of zoonotic viruses in milk is negligible in the Netherlands, and the endoparasite, Toxocara vitulorum is mainly found in suckling and fattening calves, whilst the risk in dairy cattle is limited. Excretion of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) or mycoses in milk are not expected and are, therefore, not of importance here.Being aware of the risks and working according to hygiene standards can substantially limit zoonotic risks for employees. Additionally, diseased employees are advised to limit their contact with cattle and to indicate that they work with cattle when consulting a physician. To prevent zoonotic risks through excretion of pathogens in milk, standard hygiene measures are necessary. Further, using only pasteurised milk for consumption and/or processing of milk can considerably limit the risks. If these measures are not possible, well-constructed monitoring can be followed. Monitoring programmes already exist for pathogens such as for Salmonella spp., Leptospira hardjo and Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis. For others, like Campylobacter jejuni and E. coli, programmes are not available yet as far as we know.

Monkeypox 2022 outbreak in non-endemic countries: Open questions relevant for public health, nonpharmacological intervention and literature review

Starting from mid-May 2022, cases of human monkeypox started to rise in several non-endemic countries. By mid-July, more than 17000 confirmed/suspect cases have been reported by at least 82 countries worldwide, with a regular incremental trend. In order to contain the disease diffusion, risk evaluation is crucial to undertake informed decisions and effective communication campaigns. However, since orthopoxvirus infections so far have attracted low attention, due to the eradication of smallpox 40 years ago, and to the confinement of human monkeypox almost exclusively to endemic areas, several unresolved issues concerning natural history, ecology and pathogenesis remain. To this respect, we identified some open questions and reviewed the relevant literature on monkeypoxvirus and/or related orthopoxviruses. The results will be discussed in the perspective of their relevance to public health decisions, particularly those related to non-pharmacological interventions.

Comparative Pathology of Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses

This review provides a brief history of the impacts that a human-specific Orthopoxvirus (OPXV), Variola virus, had on mankind, recalls how critical vaccination was for the eradication of this disease, and discusses the consequences of discontinuing vaccination against OPXV. One of these consequences is the emergence of zoonotic OPXV diseases, including Monkeypox virus (MPXV). The focus of this manuscript is to compare pathology associated with zoonotic OPXV infection in veterinary species and in humans. Efficient recognition of poxvirus lesions and other, more subtle signs of disease in multiple species is critical to prevent further spread of poxvirus infections. Additionally included are a synopsis of the pathology observed in animal models of MPXV infection, the recent spread of MPXV among humans, and a discussion of the potential for this virus to persist in Europe and the Americas.

Sero-Epidemiological Survey of Orthopoxvirus in Stray Cats and in Different Domestic, Wild and Exotic Animal Species of Central Italy

Orthpoxvirus infection can spread more easily in a population with a waning immunity with the subsequent emergence/re-emergence of the viruses pertaining to this genus. In the last two decades, several cases of Orthopoxvirus, and in particular Cowpoxvirus infections in humans were reported in different parts of the world, possibly due to the suspension of smallpox vaccinations. To date, in Italy, few investigations were conducted on the presence of these infections, and because of this a serosurvey was carried out to evaluate Cowpoxvirus infection in feline colonies situated in the province of Rome, since these are also susceptible to other zoonotic viruses belonging to Orthopoxvirus, and from which humans may contract the infection. The sample design was set at an expected minimum seroprevalence of 7.5%, a 5% standard error and 95% confidence level. In parallel, a serological investigation was conducted using convenience sampling in domestic, exotic and wild susceptible animals of the Latium and Tuscany Regions, which are areas in the jurisdiction of the Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana, coordinating this study. The serological methods employed were indirect immunofluorescence for 36 sera of nonhuman primate and virus neutralization for 1198 sera of different species. All the 1234 sera examined were negative for the presence of antibodies against Cowpoxvirus, indicating its limited circulation in the areas of investigation. The methodology applied for the serosurveillance could be adopted in the case of outbreaks of this infection and for the evaluation of the spread of this infection in the area of interest, to obtain essential information crucial for animal and public health policies according to the One Health concept.