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Mastrodomenico V, LoMascolo NJ, Firpo MR, Villanueva Guzman MDM, Zaporowski A, Mounce BC. Persistent Coxsackievirus B3 Infection in Pancreatic Ductal Cells In Vitro Downregulates Cellular Polyamine Metabolism. mSphere 2023:e0003623. [PMID: 37097178 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.00036-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Picornaviruses infect a wide variety of cell types in vitro, with rapid replication kinetics and pronounced cytopathic effect. Coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3) can also establish a persistent infection in vivo that can lead to pathology, including dilated cardiomyopathy and myocarditis. One model system to study persistent infection is the pancreatic ductal cell line PANC-1, which CVB3 infects and is maintained indefinitely. We have characterized this model for CVB3 infection to study persistent infection for over 6 months. We find that CVB3 rapidly replicates within PANC-1 cells without robust cytopathic effect, and after 1 month in culture, titers stabilize. We find that infection does not significantly affect cellular viability. Persistent virus reverts to lytic infection when transferred to Huh7 or Vero cells. We find that persistent CVB3 adapts to PANC-1 cells via mutation of its capsid proteins and, curiously, the viral polymerase (3Dpol) to generate a high-fidelity polymerase. Persistent infection is associated with reduced cleavage of eIF4G, reduced plaque size, and decreasing particle infectivity. We further find that polyamine metabolism is altered in persistently infected cells, with the rate-limiting enzyme ornithine decarboxylase (ODC1) reduced in translation. We further find that targeting polyamine synthesis reduces persistent infection without affecting the viability of the PANC-1 cells. Finally, we find that viral fidelity is essential to maintaining CVB3 infection, and targeting viral fidelity reduces persistent virus infection. Together, these data highlight a novel role for polyamines and fidelity in persistent CVB3 infection and suggest avenues for therapeutic development to target persistent infection. IMPORTANCE Enteroviruses are significant human pathogens that can cause severe disease, including cardiomyopathies. Viruses like coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3) can cause tissue damage by lytically infecting cells; however, CVB3 can also persistently infect, which has been associated with several pathologies. Studying persistent infection in vitro is challenging, as CVB3 lytically infects most cellular model systems. Here, we show that CVB3 establishes persistent infection in pancreatic ductal cells in vitro, similar to prior studies on other coxsackieviruses. We also show that this infection results in adaptation of the virus to these cells, as well as changes to cellular metabolism of polyamines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Mastrodomenico
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Loyola University Chicago, Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, Illinois, USA
| | - Natalie J LoMascolo
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Loyola University Chicago, Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, Illinois, USA
| | - Mason R Firpo
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Loyola University Chicago, Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, Illinois, USA
| | - Maria Del Mar Villanueva Guzman
- Infectious Disease and Immunology Research Institute, Loyola University Chicago, Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, Illinois, USA
| | - Adam Zaporowski
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Loyola University Chicago, Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, Illinois, USA
| | - Bryan C Mounce
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Loyola University Chicago, Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, Illinois, USA
- Infectious Disease and Immunology Research Institute, Loyola University Chicago, Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, Illinois, USA
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2
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Cruz-Pulido YE, Mounce BC. Good cop, bad cop: Polyamines play both sides in host immunity and viral replication. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2023; 146:70-79. [PMID: 36604249 PMCID: PMC10101871 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2022.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Revised: 12/12/2022] [Accepted: 12/13/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Viruses rely on host cells for energy and synthesis machinery required for genome replication and particle assembly. Due to the dependence of viruses on host cells, viruses have evolved multiple mechanisms by which they can induce metabolic changes in the host cell to suit their specific requirements. The host immune response also involves metabolic changes to be able to react to viral insult. Polyamines are small ubiquitously expressed polycations, and their metabolism is critical for viral replication and an adequate host immune response. This is due to the variety of functions that polyamines have, ranging from condensing DNA to enhancing the translation of polyproline-containing proteins through the hypusination of eIF5A. Here, we review the diverse mechanisms by which viruses exploit polyamines, as well as the mechanisms by which immune cells utilize polyamines for their functions. Furthermore, we highlight potential avenues for further study of the host-virus interface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yazmin E Cruz-Pulido
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, IL, USA
| | - Bryan C Mounce
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, IL, USA; Infectious Disease and Immunology Research Institute, Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, IL, USA.
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3
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Mastrodomenico V, LoMascolo NJ, Cruz-Pulido YE, Cunha CR, Mounce BC. Polyamine-Linked Cholesterol Incorporation in Rift Valley Fever Virus Particles Promotes Infectivity. ACS Infect Dis 2022; 8:1439-1448. [PMID: 35786847 PMCID: PMC9549488 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.2c00071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Viruses rely on an array of cellular metabolites to replicate and form progeny virions. One set of these molecules, polyamines, are small aliphatic molecules, which are abundant in most cells, that support virus infection; however, the precise roles of polyamines in virus infection remain incompletely understood. Recent work demonstrated that polyamine metabolism supports cellular cholesterol synthesis through translation of the key transcription factor SREBP2. Here, we show that the bunyavirus Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) relies on both cholesterol and polyamines for virus infection. Depletion of cellular cholesterol or interruption of cholesterol trafficking negatively impacts RVFV infection. Cholesterol is incorporated into RVFV virions and mediates their infectivity in a polyamine-dependent manner; we find that the virus derived from polyamine-depleted cells lacks cholesterol within the virion membrane. Conversely, we find that virion-associated cholesterol is linked to the incorporation of spermidine within the virion. Our prior work demonstrated that polyamines facilitate pH-mediated fusion and genome release, which may be a consequence of cholesterol depletion within virions. Thus, our work highlights the metabolic connection between polyamines and cholesterol synthesis to impact bunyavirus infection. These data demonstrate the connectedness between cellular metabolic pathways and reveal potential avenues of therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Mastrodomenico
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, Illinois 60153, United States
| | - Natalie J LoMascolo
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, Illinois 60153, United States
| | - Yazmin E Cruz-Pulido
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, Illinois 60153, United States
- Infectious Diseases and Immunology Research Institute, Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, Illinois 60153, United States
| | - Christina R Cunha
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, Illinois 60153, United States
| | - Bryan C Mounce
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, Illinois 60153, United States
- Infectious Diseases and Immunology Research Institute, Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, Illinois 60153, United States
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4
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Xie H, Ai Q, Tong T, Liao M, Fan H. PEDV infection affects the expression of polyamine-related genes inhibiting viral proliferation. Virus Res 2022; 312:198708. [PMID: 35151773 PMCID: PMC8830936 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2022.198708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Revised: 02/07/2022] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) is an alpha-coronavirus that causes epidemic diarrhea in swines. The mortality of PEDV infection in one-week-old piglets is extremely high, which causes a huge significant economic loss to the global pig husbandry and blocks its healthy development. There was a lack of adequate studies to elucidate pathogenic mechanism associated with PEDV infection. In the present study, we detected the expression profiles of polyamine metabolism associated genes in Vero cells infected with PEDV by RT-qPCR. It is shown that PAOX(acetylpolyamine oxidase), SMOX(spermine oxidase), SAT1(spermidine-spermine acetyltransferase 1), ODC1(ornithine decarboxylase 1), DHPS(deoxyhypusine synthase) and EIF5A( eukaryotic initiation factor 5A) were significantly upregulated. Through intervening SAT1 level in PEDV-infected Vero cells, it is identified that overexpression of SAT1 inhibited PEDV replication by reducing polyamine levels. Furthermore, polyamine depletion and upregulation were found to regulate the proliferation of PEDV. PEDV infection in Vero cells did not result in a significant change in the protein level of eIF5A, and in addition, the activated eIF5A did not affect the proliferation of PEDV. Our results provided new insights into the influence of polyamine metabolism on the proliferation of PEDV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hangao Xie
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; National and Regional Joint Engineering Laboratory for Medicament of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, China; Key Laboratory of Animal Vaccine Development, Ministry of Agriculture, China; Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, China
| | - Qiangyun Ai
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; National and Regional Joint Engineering Laboratory for Medicament of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, China; Key Laboratory of Animal Vaccine Development, Ministry of Agriculture, China; Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, China
| | | | - Ming Liao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; National and Regional Joint Engineering Laboratory for Medicament of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, China; Key Laboratory of Animal Vaccine Development, Ministry of Agriculture, China; Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, China.
| | - Huiying Fan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; National and Regional Joint Engineering Laboratory for Medicament of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, China; Key Laboratory of Animal Vaccine Development, Ministry of Agriculture, China; Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, China.
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5
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Abookleesh FL, Al-Anzi BS, Ullah A. Potential Antiviral Action of Alkaloids. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27030903. [PMID: 35164173 PMCID: PMC8839337 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27030903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2021] [Revised: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Viral infections and outbreaks have become a major concern and are one of the main causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. The development of successful antiviral therapeutics and vaccines remains a daunting challenge. The discovery of novel antiviral agents is a public health emergency, and extraordinary efforts are underway globally to identify safe and effective treatments for different viral diseases. Alkaloids are natural phytochemicals known for their biological activities, many of which have been intensively studied for their broad-spectrum of antiviral activities against different DNA and RNA viruses. The purpose of this review was to summarize the evidence supporting the efficacy of the antiviral activity of plant alkaloids at half-maximum effective concentration (EC50) or half-maximum inhibitory concentration (IC50) below 10 μM and describe the molecular sites most often targeted by natural alkaloids acting against different virus families. This review highlights that considering the devastating effects of virus pandemics on humans, plants, and animals, the development of high efficiency and low-toxicity antiviral drugs targeting these viruses need to be developed. Furthermore, it summarizes the current research status of alkaloids as the source of antiviral drug development, their structural characteristics, and antiviral targets. Overall, the influence of alkaloids at the molecular level suggests a high degree of specificity which means they could serve as potent and safe antiviral agents waiting for evaluation and exploitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frage L. Abookleesh
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada;
| | - Bader S. Al-Anzi
- Department of Environment Technologies and Management, Kuwait University, P.O. Box 5969, Kuwait City 13060, Kuwait;
| | - Aman Ullah
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-78-0-492-4845
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6
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Dieringer B, Elsner L, Hazini A, Kurreck J, Fechner H. Generation of a microRNA-Regulated Oncolytic Coxsackievirus B3. Methods Mol Biol 2022; 2521:259-282. [PMID: 35733003 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2441-8_14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The members of the picornavirus family include various viruses which, due to their impressive oncolytic activity, have the potential to be used for the treatment of cancer. However, the replication of these oncolytic viruses (OV) is not limited to tumor cells but can also take place in various normal tissues. To increase the safety of these OV, target sites (miR-TS) of microRNAs, which are expressed in normal tissues but are absent or only expressed at low levels in cancer cells, can be inserted into the viral genome. Here we describe how miR-TS can easily be inserted into the complementary DNA (cDNA) of coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3) RNA genome using the In-Fusion cloning technology. Here we provide the step-by-step protocol, how miR-TS containing recombinant CVB3 can be generated from these viral cDNA constructs, how the virus is amplified, purified and concentrated, and how the functionality of the miR-TS within the viral genome can be confirmed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Babette Dieringer
- Department of Applied Biochemistry, Institute of Biotechnology, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Leslie Elsner
- Department of Applied Biochemistry, Institute of Biotechnology, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ahmet Hazini
- Department of Applied Biochemistry, Institute of Biotechnology, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Oncology, University of Oxford, Oxford, Oxfordshire, UK
| | - Jens Kurreck
- Department of Applied Biochemistry, Institute of Biotechnology, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Henry Fechner
- Department of Applied Biochemistry, Institute of Biotechnology, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany.
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7
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Drayman N, DeMarco JK, Jones KA, Azizi SA, Froggatt HM, Tan K, Maltseva NI, Chen S, Nicolaescu V, Dvorkin S, Furlong K, Kathayat RS, Firpo MR, Mastrodomenico V, Bruce EA, Schmidt MM, Jedrzejczak R, Muñoz-Alía MÁ, Schuster B, Nair V, Han KY, O’Brien A, Tomatsidou A, Meyer B, Vignuzzi M, Missiakas D, Botten JW, Brooke CB, Lee H, Baker SC, Mounce BC, Heaton NS, Severson WE, Palmer KE, Dickinson BC, Joachimiak A, Randall G, Tay S. Masitinib is a broad coronavirus 3CL inhibitor that blocks replication of SARS-CoV-2. Science 2021; 373:931-936. [PMID: 34285133 PMCID: PMC8809056 DOI: 10.1126/science.abg5827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 56.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2021] [Accepted: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
There is an urgent need for antiviral agents that treat severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. We screened a library of 1900 clinically safe drugs against OC43, a human beta coronavirus that causes the common cold, and evaluated the top hits against SARS-CoV-2. Twenty drugs significantly inhibited replication of both viruses in cultured human cells. Eight of these drugs inhibited the activity of the SARS-CoV-2 main protease, 3CLpro, with the most potent being masitinib, an orally bioavailable tyrosine kinase inhibitor. X-ray crystallography and biochemistry show that masitinib acts as a competitive inhibitor of 3CLpro. Mice infected with SARS-CoV-2 and then treated with masitinib showed >200-fold reduction in viral titers in the lungs and nose, as well as reduced lung inflammation. Masitinib was also effective in vitro against all tested variants of concern (B.1.1.7, B.1.351, and P.1).
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Affiliation(s)
- Nir Drayman
- Pritzker School for Molecular Engineering, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.,Corresponding author. (S.T.); (N.D.)
| | - Jennifer K. DeMarco
- Center for Predictive Medicine for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA
| | - Krysten A. Jones
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.,Department of Microbiology, Ricketts Laboratory, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Saara-Anne Azizi
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.,Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Illinois Eye and Ear Infirmary, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Heather M. Froggatt
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA.,Institut Pasteur, Viral Populations and Pathogenesis Unit, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR 3569, Paris, France
| | - Kemin Tan
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA.,Center for Structural Genomics of Infectious Diseases, Consortium for Advanced Science and Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.,Structural Biology Center, X-ray Science Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL, USA.,Department of Medicine, Division of Immunobiology, Larner College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA
| | - Natalia Ivanovna Maltseva
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA.,Center for Structural Genomics of Infectious Diseases, Consortium for Advanced Science and Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.,Structural Biology Center, X-ray Science Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL, USA.,Department of Microbiology, Ricketts Laboratory, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Siquan Chen
- Cellular Screening Center, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.,Department of Microbiology, Ricketts Laboratory, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Vlad Nicolaescu
- Department of Microbiology, Ricketts Laboratory, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Steve Dvorkin
- Department of Microbiology, Ricketts Laboratory, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Kevin Furlong
- Department of Microbiology, Ricketts Laboratory, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Rahul S. Kathayat
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.,Department of Microbiology, Ricketts Laboratory, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Mason R. Firpo
- Pritzker School for Molecular Engineering, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL, USA
| | - Vincent Mastrodomenico
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL, USA
| | - Emily A. Bruce
- Cellular Screening Center, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.,Department of Medicine, Division of Immunobiology, Larner College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Larner College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA
| | - Madaline M. Schmidt
- Department of Medicine, Division of Immunobiology, Larner College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Larner College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA
| | - Robert Jedrzejczak
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA.,Center for Structural Genomics of Infectious Diseases, Consortium for Advanced Science and Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.,Structural Biology Center, X-ray Science Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL, USA
| | | | - Brooke Schuster
- Pritzker School for Molecular Engineering, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.,Department of Microbiology, Ricketts Laboratory, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Vishnu Nair
- Pritzker School for Molecular Engineering, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.,Department of Microbiology, Ricketts Laboratory, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Kyu-yeon Han
- Center for Predictive Medicine for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA.,Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Illinois Eye and Ear Infirmary, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Amornrat O’Brien
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL, USA.,Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Biophysics Core at Research Resources Center, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Anastasia Tomatsidou
- Department of Microbiology, Ricketts Laboratory, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.,Department of Medicine, Division of Immunobiology, Larner College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA
| | - Bjoern Meyer
- Institut Pasteur, Viral Populations and Pathogenesis Unit, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR 3569, Paris, France
| | - Marco Vignuzzi
- Structural Biology Center, X-ray Science Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL, USA.,Institut Pasteur, Viral Populations and Pathogenesis Unit, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR 3569, Paris, France
| | - Dominique Missiakas
- Department of Microbiology, Ricketts Laboratory, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Jason W. Botten
- Cellular Screening Center, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.,Department of Medicine, Division of Immunobiology, Larner College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Larner College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA.,Vaccine Testing Center, Larner College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA
| | - Christopher B. Brooke
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Larner College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA.,Department of Microbiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA.,Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Hyun Lee
- Vaccine Testing Center, Larner College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA.,Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Biophysics Core at Research Resources Center, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Susan C. Baker
- Pritzker School for Molecular Engineering, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL, USA.,Institut Pasteur, Viral Populations and Pathogenesis Unit, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR 3569, Paris, France
| | - Bryan C. Mounce
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL, USA.,Institut Pasteur, Viral Populations and Pathogenesis Unit, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR 3569, Paris, France.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Nicholas S. Heaton
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA.,Institut Pasteur, Viral Populations and Pathogenesis Unit, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR 3569, Paris, France
| | - William E. Severson
- Center for Predictive Medicine for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA.,Department of Chemistry, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Kenneth E. Palmer
- Center for Predictive Medicine for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA.,Department of Microbiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Bryan C. Dickinson
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.,Department of Microbiology, Ricketts Laboratory, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Andrzej Joachimiak
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA.,Center for Structural Genomics of Infectious Diseases, Consortium for Advanced Science and Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.,Structural Biology Center, X-ray Science Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL, USA.,Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Glenn Randall
- Department of Microbiology, Ricketts Laboratory, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.,Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Savaş Tay
- Pritzker School for Molecular Engineering, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.,Department of Microbiology, Ricketts Laboratory, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.,Corresponding author. (S.T.); (N.D.)
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8
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Hulsebosch BM, Mounce BC. Polyamine Analog Diethylnorspermidine Restricts Coxsackievirus B3 and Is Overcome by 2A Protease Mutation In Vitro. Viruses 2021; 13:310. [PMID: 33669273 PMCID: PMC7920041 DOI: 10.3390/v13020310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2021] [Revised: 02/10/2021] [Accepted: 02/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Enteroviruses, including Coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3), are pervasive pathogens that cause significant disease, including cardiomyopathies. Unfortunately, no treatments or vaccines are available for infected individuals. We identified the host polyamine pathway as a potential drug target, as inhibiting polyamine biosynthesis significantly reduces enterovirus replication in vitro and in vivo. Here, we show that CVB3 is sensitive to polyamine depletion through the polyamine analog diethylnorspermidine (DENSpm), which enhances polyamine catabolism through induction of polyamine acetylation. We demonstrate that CVB3 acquires resistance to DENSpm via mutation of the 2A protease, which enhances proteolytic activity in the presence of DENSpm. Resistance to DENSpm occurred via mutation of a non-catalytic site mutation and results in decreased fitness. These data demonstrate that potential for targeting polyamine catabolism as an antiviral target as well as highlight a potential mechanism of resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bridget M. Hulsebosch
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153, USA;
- Infectious Disease and Immunology Research Institute, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
| | - Bryan C. Mounce
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153, USA;
- Infectious Disease and Immunology Research Institute, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
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9
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Huang M, Zhang W, Chen H, Zeng J. Targeting Polyamine Metabolism for Control of Human Viral Diseases. Infect Drug Resist 2020; 13:4335-4346. [PMID: 33293837 PMCID: PMC7718961 DOI: 10.2147/idr.s262024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2020] [Accepted: 10/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
A virus is an infectious particle which generally contains nucleic acid genome (DNA or RNA inside a protein shell), except for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Viruses have to reproduce by infecting their host cells. Polyamines are ubiquitous compounds in mammalian cells and play key roles in various cellular processes. The metabolic pathways of polyamines have been well studied. Targeting these metabolic pathways can reduce infections caused by viruses. In the study, we systematically reviewed the association of polyamine metabolic pathways and viruses including coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3), enterovirus 71 (EV71), poliovirus (PV), Zika virus (ZKV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), dengue virus (DENV), Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), yellow fever virus (YFV), Ebola virus (EBOV), marburgvirus (MARV), chikungunya virus (CHIKV), sindbis virus (SINV), Semliki Forest virus (SFV), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV), human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV), Rabies virus (RABV), Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV), La Crosse virus (LACV), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), Middle East respiratory syndrome virus (MERS-CoV), and coronavirus disease 2019 (SARS-CoV-2). This review revealed that targeting polyamine metabolic pathways may be a potential approach to control human viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingyuan Huang
- Dongguan Key Laboratory of Medical Bioactive Molecular Developmental and Translational Research, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Diagnostics, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan523808, People’s Republic of China
- Dongguan Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine, School of Public Health, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan523808, People’s Republic of China
| | - Weijian Zhang
- Dongguan Key Laboratory of Medical Bioactive Molecular Developmental and Translational Research, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Diagnostics, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan523808, People’s Republic of China
- Dongguan Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine, School of Public Health, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan523808, People’s Republic of China
| | - Haiyong Chen
- School of Chinese Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
| | - Jincheng Zeng
- Dongguan Key Laboratory of Medical Bioactive Molecular Developmental and Translational Research, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Diagnostics, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan523808, People’s Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Medical Bioactive Molecular Research for Department of Education of Guangdong Province, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan523808, People’s Republic of China
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Antitumor Active Substance Research and Development, Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, Guangdong524023, People’s Republic of China
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10
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Zhou Y, Hou Z, Fang L, Ke Q, Xiong Y, Fang P, Xiao S. Polyamine regulation of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus infection depends on spermidine-spermine acetyltransferase 1. Vet Microbiol 2020; 250:108839. [PMID: 33002680 PMCID: PMC7501835 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2020.108839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2020] [Accepted: 08/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Inhibition of polyamine synthesis suppresses PRRSV proliferation. PRRSV infection relies on spermidine and spermine. PRRSV decreases the levels of intracellular polyamines. PRRSV infection increases the mRNA level of SAT1. SAT1 inhibits PRRSV propagation.
Like obligate intracellular parasites, viruses co-opt host cell resources to establish productive infections. Polyamines are key aliphatic molecules that perform important roles in cellular growth and proliferation. They are also needed for the successful multiplication of various viruses. Little is known about the effects of polyamines on Arteriviridae infections. Here, porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), an economically prominent porcine virus, was used to investigate virus–polyamine interactions. We found that PRRSV infection significantly downregulated the levels of cellular polyamines. Using an inhibitor or specific short interfering RNAs (siRNAs) of ornithine decarboxylase 1, a key anabolic enzyme involved in the classical de novo biosynthesis of polyamines, we found that polyamine depletion abrogated PRRSV proliferation, and this effect was recoverable by adding exogenous spermidine and spermine, but not putrescine to the cells, suggesting that the host inhibits polyamine biosynthesis to restrict PRRSV proliferation. Further analysis revealed that the expression level of spermidine-spermine acetyltransferase 1 (SAT1), a catabolic enzyme that reduces spermidine and spermine levels, was upregulated during PRRSV infection, but conversely, SAT1 had an inhibitory effect on PRRSV reproduction. Our data show that polyamines are important molecules during PRRSV-host interactions, and polyamines and their biosynthetic pathways are potential therapeutic targets against PRRSV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanrong Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, the Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Zhenzhen Hou
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, the Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Liurong Fang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, the Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Qiyun Ke
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, the Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Yujian Xiong
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, the Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Puxian Fang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, the Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Shaobo Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, the Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan 430070, China.
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11
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Tate PM, Mastrodomenico V, Mounce BC. Ribavirin Induces Polyamine Depletion via Nucleotide Depletion to Limit Virus Replication. Cell Rep 2020; 28:2620-2633.e4. [PMID: 31484073 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2019.07.099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2019] [Revised: 06/24/2019] [Accepted: 07/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Common antivirals include nucleoside or nucleotide analogs with base prodrugs. The antiviral ribavirin, a US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved nucleoside antimetabolite, halts guanine production, mutagenizes viral genomes, and activates interferon signaling. Here, we find that ribavirin induces spermidine-spermine N1-acetyltransferase (SAT1), a polyamine catabolic enzyme. Polyamines are small, positively charged molecules involved in cellular functions such as transcription and translation. Previous work showed that SAT1 activation and polyamine depletion interfere with RNA virus replication. We show ribavirin depletes polyamines via SAT1, in conjunction with its known mechanisms. SAT1 transcripts, protein, and activity are induced in a dose-dependent manner, which depletes polyamine levels and reduces viral titers. Inhibition of SAT1 activity, pharmacologically or genetically, reduces ribavirin's effectiveness against three virus infection models. Additionally, ribavirin-mediated polyamine depletion results from nucleotide pool depletion. These data demonstrate another mechanism of ribavirin that inform its clinical effectiveness, which may provide insight for improved therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick M Tate
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
| | - Vincent Mastrodomenico
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
| | - Bryan C Mounce
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153, USA.
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12
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Mastrodomenico V, Esin JJ, Qazi S, Khomutov MA, Ivanov AV, Mukhopadhyay S, Mounce BC. Virion-Associated Polyamines Transmit with Bunyaviruses to Maintain Infectivity and Promote Entry. ACS Infect Dis 2020; 6:2490-2501. [PMID: 32687697 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.0c00402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Viruses require host cell metabolites to productively infect, and the mechanisms by which viruses usurp these molecules are diverse. One group of cellular metabolites important in virus infection is the polyamines, small positively charged molecules involved in cell cycle, translation, and nucleic acid metabolism, among other cellular functions. Polyamines support replication of diverse viruses, and they are important for processes such as transcription, translation, and viral protein enzymatic activity. Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) is a negative and ambisense RNA virus that requires polyamines to produce infectious particles. In polyamine depleted conditions, noninfectious particles are produced that interfere with virus replication and stimulate immune signaling. Here, we find that RVFV relies on virion-associated polyamines to maintain infectivity and enhance viral entry. We show that RVFV replication is facilitated by a limited set of polyamines and that spermidine and closely related molecules associate with purified virions and transmit from cell to cell during infection. Virion-associated spermidine maintains virion infectivity, as virions devoid of polyamines rapidly lose infectivity and are temperature sensitive. Further, virions without polyamines bind to cells but exhibit a defect in entry, requiring more acidic conditions than virions containing spermidine. These data highlight a unique role for polyamines, and spermidine particularly, to maintain virus infectivity. Further, these studies are the first to identify polyamines associated with RVFV virions. Targeting polyamines represents a promising antiviral strategy, and this work highlights a new mechanism by which we can inhibit virus replication through FDA-approved polyamine depleting pharmaceuticals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Mastrodomenico
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, Illinois 60153, United States
| | - Jeremy J. Esin
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, Illinois 60153, United States
- Infectious Disease and Immunology Research Institute, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, Illinois 60153, United States
| | - Shefah Qazi
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, United States
| | - Maxim A. Khomutov
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Alexander V. Ivanov
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | | | - Bryan C. Mounce
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, Illinois 60153, United States
- Infectious Disease and Immunology Research Institute, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, Illinois 60153, United States
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13
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Drayman N, Jones KA, Azizi SA, Froggatt HM, Tan K, Maltseva NI, Chen S, Nicolaescu V, Dvorkin S, Furlong K, Kathayat RS, Firpo MR, Mastrodomenico V, Bruce EA, Schmidt MM, Jedrzejczak R, Muñoz-Alía MÁ, Schuster B, Nair V, Botten JW, Brooke CB, Baker SC, Mounce BC, Heaton NS, Dickinson BC, Jaochimiak A, Randall G, Tay S. Drug repurposing screen identifies masitinib as a 3CLpro inhibitor that blocks replication of SARS-CoV-2 in vitro. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2020. [PMID: 32908976 DOI: 10.1101/2020.08.31.274639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
There is an urgent need for anti-viral agents that treat SARS-CoV-2 infection. The shortest path to clinical use is repurposing of drugs that have an established safety profile in humans. Here, we first screened a library of 1,900 clinically safe drugs for inhibiting replication of OC43, a human beta-coronavirus that causes the common-cold and is a relative of SARS-CoV-2, and identified 108 effective drugs. We further evaluated the top 26 hits and determined their ability to inhibit SARS-CoV-2, as well as other pathogenic RNA viruses. 20 of the 26 drugs significantly inhibited SARS-CoV-2 replication in human lung cells (A549 epithelial cell line), with EC50 values ranging from 0.1 to 8 micromolar. We investigated the mechanism of action for these and found that masitinib, a drug originally developed as a tyrosine-kinase inhibitor for cancer treatment, strongly inhibited the activity of the SARS-CoV-2 main protease 3CLpro. X-ray crystallography revealed that masitinib directly binds to the active site of 3CLpro, thereby blocking its enzymatic activity. Mastinib also inhibited the related viral protease of picornaviruses and blocked picornaviruses replication. Thus, our results show that masitinib has broad anti-viral activity against two distinct beta-coronaviruses and multiple picornaviruses that cause human disease and is a strong candidate for clinical trials to treat SARS-CoV-2 infection.
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14
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Firpo MR, Mounce BC. Diverse Functions of Polyamines in Virus Infection. Biomolecules 2020; 10:E628. [PMID: 32325677 PMCID: PMC7226272 DOI: 10.3390/biom10040628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2020] [Revised: 04/10/2020] [Accepted: 04/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
As obligate intracellular parasites, viruses rely on host cells for the building blocks of progeny viruses. Metabolites such as amino acids, nucleotides, and lipids are central to viral proteins, genomes, and envelopes, and the availability of these molecules can restrict or promote infection. Polyamines, comprised of putrescine, spermidine, and spermine in mammalian cells, are also critical for virus infection. Polyamines are small, positively charged molecules that function in transcription, translation, and cell cycling. Initial work on the function of polyamines in bacteriophage infection illuminated these molecules as critical to virus infection. In the decades since early virus-polyamine descriptions, work on diverse viruses continues to highlight a role for polyamines in viral processes, including genome packaging and viral enzymatic activity. On the host side, polyamines function in the response to virus infection. Thus, viruses and hosts compete for polyamines, which are a critical resource for both. Pharmacologically targeting polyamines, tipping the balance to favor the host and restrict virus replication, holds significant promise as a broad-spectrum antiviral strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Bryan C. Mounce
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153, USA;
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15
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Polyamine Depletion Abrogates Enterovirus Cellular Attachment. J Virol 2019; 93:JVI.01054-19. [PMID: 31341056 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01054-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2019] [Accepted: 07/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Polyamines are small polycationic molecules with flexible carbon chains that are found in all eukaryotic cells. Polyamines are involved in the regulation of many host processes and have been shown to be implicated in viral replication. Depletion of polyamine pools in cells treated with FDA-approved drugs restricts replication of diverse RNA viruses. Viruses can exploit host polyamines to facilitate nucleic acid packaging, transcription, and translation, but other mechanisms remain largely unknown. Picornaviruses, including Coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3), are sensitive to the depletion of polyamines and remain a significant public health threat. We employed CVB3 as a model system to investigate a potential proviral role for polyamines using a forward screen. Passaging CVB3 in polyamine-depleted cells generated a mutation in capsid protein VP3 at residue 234. We show that this mutation confers resistance to polyamine depletion. Through attachment assays, we demonstrate that polyamine depletion limits CVB3 attachment to susceptible cells, which is rescued by incubating virus with polyamines. Furthermore, the capsid mutant rescues this inhibition in polyamine-depleted cells. More divergent viruses also exhibited reduced attachment to polyamine-depleted cells, suggesting that polyamines may facilitate attachment of diverse RNA viruses. These studies inform additional mechanisms of action for polyamine-depleting pharmaceuticals, with implications for potential antiviral therapies.IMPORTANCE Enteroviruses are significant human pathogens that can cause severe disease. These viruses rely on polyamines, small positively charged molecules, for robust replication, and polyamine depletion limits infection in vitro and in vivo The mechanisms by which polyamines enhance enteroviral replication are unknown. Here, we describe how Coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3) utilizes polyamines to attach to susceptible cells and initiate infection. Using a forward genetic screen, we identified a mutation in a receptor-binding amino acid that promotes infection of polyamine-depleted cells. These data suggest that pharmacologically inhibiting polyamine biosynthesis may combat virus infection by preventing virus attachment to susceptible cells.
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