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Anoma S, Bhattarakosol P, Kowitdamrong E. Characteristics and evolution of hemagglutinin and neuraminidase genes of Influenza A(H3N2) viruses in Thailand during 2015 to 2018. PeerJ 2024; 12:e17523. [PMID: 38846750 PMCID: PMC11155671 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.17523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2024] [Accepted: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 06/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Influenza A(H3N2) virus evolves continuously. Its hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) genes have high genetic variation due to the antigenic drift. This study aimed to investigate the characteristics and evolution of HA and NA genes of the influenza A(H3N2) virus in Thailand. Methods Influenza A positive respiratory samples from 2015 to 2018 were subtyped by multiplex real-time RT-PCR. Full-length HA and NA genes from the positive samples of influenza A(H3N2) were amplified and sequenced. Phylogenetic analysis with the maximum likelihood method was used to investigate the evolution of the virus compared with the WHO-recommended influenza vaccine strain. Homology modeling and N-glycosylation site prediction were also performed. Results Out of 443 samples, 147 (33.18%) were A(H1N1)pdm09 and 296 (66.82%) were A(H3N2). The A(H3N2) viruses circulating in 2015 were clade 3C.2a whereas sub-clade 3C.2a1 and 3C.2a2 dominated in 2016-2017 and 2018, respectively. Amino acid substitutions were found in all antigenic sites A, B, C, D, and E of HA but the majority of the substitutions were located at antigenic sites A and B. The S245N and N329S substitutions in the NA gene affect the N-glycosylation. None of the mutations associated with resistance to NA inhibitors were observed. Mean evolutionary rates of the HA and NA genes were 3.47 × 10 -3 and 2.98 × 10-3 substitutions per site per year. Conclusion The influenza A(H3N2) virus is very genetically diverse and is always evolving to evade host defenses. The HA and NA gene features including the evolutionary rate of the influenza A(H3N2) viruses that were circulating in Thailand between 2015 and 2018 are described. This information is useful for monitoring the genetic characteristics and evolution in HA and NA genes of influenza A(H3N2) virus in Thailand which is crucial for predicting the influenza vaccine strains resulting in high vaccine effectiveness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sasiprapa Anoma
- Interdisciplinary Program in Medical Microbiology, Graduated School, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Center of Excellence in Applied Medical Virology, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Parvapan Bhattarakosol
- Center of Excellence in Applied Medical Virology, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Division of Virology, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Ekasit Kowitdamrong
- Center of Excellence in Applied Medical Virology, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Division of Virology, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
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Wang X, Kim KW, Walker G, Stelzer‐Braid S, Scotch M, Rawlinson WD. Genome characterization of influenza A and B viruses in New South Wales, Australia, in 2019: A retrospective study using high-throughput whole genome sequencing. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2024; 18:e13252. [PMID: 38288510 PMCID: PMC10824601 DOI: 10.1111/irv.13252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2023] [Revised: 12/22/2023] [Accepted: 12/23/2023] [Indexed: 02/01/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND During the 2019 severe influenza season, New South Wales (NSW) experienced the highest number of cases in Australia. This study retrospectively investigated the genetic characteristics of influenza viruses circulating in NSW in 2019 and identified genetic markers related to antiviral resistance and potential virulence. METHODS The complete genomes of influenza A and B viruses were amplified using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequenced with an Illumina MiSeq platform. RESULTS When comparing the sequencing data with the vaccine strains and reference sequences, the phylogenetic analysis revealed that most NSW A/H3N2 viruses (n = 68; 94%) belonged to 3C.2a1b and a minority (n = 4; 6%) belonged to 3C.3a. These viruses all diverged from the vaccine strain A/Switzerland/8060/2017. All A/H1N1pdm09 viruses (n = 20) showed genetic dissimilarity from vaccine strain A/Michigan/45/2015, with subclades 6B.1A.5 and 6B.1A.2 identified. All B/Victoria-lineage viruses (n = 21) aligned with clade V1A.3, presenting triple amino acid deletions at positions 162-164 in the hemagglutinin protein, significantly diverging from the vaccine strain B/Colorado/06/2017. Multiple amino acid substitutions were also found in the internal proteins of influenza viruses, some of which have been previously reported in hospitalized influenza patients in Thailand. Notably, the oseltamivir-resistant marker H275Y was present in one immunocompromised patient infected with A/H1N1pdm09 and the resistance-related mutation I222V was detected in another A/H3N2-infected patient. CONCLUSIONS Considering antigenic drift and the constant evolution of circulating A and B strains, we believe continuous monitoring of influenza viruses in NSW via the high-throughput sequencing approach provides timely and pivotal information for both public health surveillance and clinical treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinye Wang
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and HealthUniversity of New South WalesSydneyNew South WalesAustralia
- Virology Research Laboratory, Serology and Virology Division (SAViD), NSW Health PathologyPrince of Wales HospitalSydneyNew South WalesAustralia
| | - Ki Wook Kim
- Virology Research Laboratory, Serology and Virology Division (SAViD), NSW Health PathologyPrince of Wales HospitalSydneyNew South WalesAustralia
- Discipline of Paediatrics and Child Health, School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and HealthUniversity of New South WalesSydneyNew South WalesAustralia
| | - Gregory Walker
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and HealthUniversity of New South WalesSydneyNew South WalesAustralia
- Virology Research Laboratory, Serology and Virology Division (SAViD), NSW Health PathologyPrince of Wales HospitalSydneyNew South WalesAustralia
| | - Sacha Stelzer‐Braid
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and HealthUniversity of New South WalesSydneyNew South WalesAustralia
- Virology Research Laboratory, Serology and Virology Division (SAViD), NSW Health PathologyPrince of Wales HospitalSydneyNew South WalesAustralia
| | - Matthew Scotch
- Biodesign Center for Environmental Health Engineering, Biodesign InstituteArizona State UniversityPhoenixArizonaUSA
- College of Health SolutionsArizona State UniversityPhoenixArizonaUSA
- Kirby InstituteUniversity of New South WalesSydneyNew South WalesAustralia
| | - William D. Rawlinson
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and HealthUniversity of New South WalesSydneyNew South WalesAustralia
- Virology Research Laboratory, Serology and Virology Division (SAViD), NSW Health PathologyPrince of Wales HospitalSydneyNew South WalesAustralia
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Morimoto R, Matsubara C, Hanada A, Omoe Y, Ogata T, Isegawa Y. Effect of Structural Differences in Naringenin, Prenylated Naringenin, and Their Derivatives on the Anti-Influenza Virus Activity and Cellular Uptake of Their Flavanones. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:ph15121480. [PMID: 36558931 PMCID: PMC9785311 DOI: 10.3390/ph15121480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2022] [Revised: 11/21/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Vaccines and antiviral drugs are widely used to treat influenza infection. However, they cannot rapidly respond to drug-resistant viruses. Therefore, new anti-influenza virus strategies are required. Naringenin is a flavonoid with potential for new antiviral strategies. In this study, we evaluated the antiviral effects of naringenin derivatives and examined the relationship between their cellular uptake and antiviral effects. Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells were infected with the A/PR/8/34 strain and exposed to the compound-containing medium for 24 h. The amount of virus in the supernatant was calculated using focus-forming reduction assay. Antiviral activity was evaluated using IC50 and CC50 values. Cells were exposed to a constant concentration of naringenin or prenylated naringenin, and intracellular uptake and distribution were evaluated using a fluorescence microscope. Prenylated naringenin showed strong anti-influenza virus effects, and the amount of intracellular uptake was revealed by the strong intracellular fluorescence. In addition, intracellular distribution differed depending on the position of the prenyl group. The steric factor of naringenin is deeply involved in influenza A virus activity, and prenyl groups are desirable. Furthermore, the prenyl group affects cellular affinity, and the uptake mechanism differs depending on its position. These results provide important information on antiviral strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryosuke Morimoto
- Department of Food Sciences and Nutrition, Mukogawa Women’s University, Nishinomiya 663-8558, Hyogo, Japan
| | - Chiaki Matsubara
- Department of Food Sciences and Nutrition, Mukogawa Women’s University, Nishinomiya 663-8558, Hyogo, Japan
| | - Akari Hanada
- Department of Food Sciences and Nutrition, Mukogawa Women’s University, Nishinomiya 663-8558, Hyogo, Japan
| | - Yuta Omoe
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokuriku University, Kanazawa, 920-1181, Ishikawa, Japan
| | - Tokutaro Ogata
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokuriku University, Kanazawa, 920-1181, Ishikawa, Japan
| | - Yuji Isegawa
- Department of Food Sciences and Nutrition, Mukogawa Women’s University, Nishinomiya 663-8558, Hyogo, Japan
- Correspondence:
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Phyu WW, Saito R, Kyaw Y, Lin N, Win SMK, Win NC, Ja LD, Htwe KTZ, Aung TZ, Tin HH, Pe EH, Chon I, Wagatsuma K, Watanabe H. Evolutionary Dynamics of Whole-Genome Influenza A/H3N2 Viruses Isolated in Myanmar from 2015 to 2019. Viruses 2022; 14:v14112414. [PMID: 36366512 PMCID: PMC9699102 DOI: 10.3390/v14112414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2022] [Revised: 10/29/2022] [Accepted: 10/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to analyze the genetic and evolutionary characteristics of the influenza A/H3N2 viruses circulating in Myanmar from 2015 to 2019. Whole genomes from 79 virus isolates were amplified using real-time polymerase chain reaction and successfully sequenced using the Illumina iSeq100 platforms. Eight individual phylogenetic trees were retrieved for each segment along with those of the World Health Organization (WHO)-recommended Southern Hemisphere vaccine strains for the respective years. Based on the WHO clades classification, the A/H3N2 strains in Myanmar from 2015 to 2019 collectively belonged to clade 3c.2. These strains were further defined based on hemagglutinin substitutions as follows: clade 3C.2a (n = 39), 3C.2a1 (n = 2), and 3C.2a1b (n = 38). Genetic analysis revealed that the Myanmar strains differed from the Southern Hemisphere vaccine strains each year, indicating that the vaccine strains did not match the circulating strains. The highest rates of nucleotide substitution were estimated for hemagglutinin (3.37 × 10-3 substitutions/site/year) and neuraminidase (2.89 × 10-3 substitutions/site/year). The lowest rate was for non-structural protein segments (4.19 × 10-5 substitutions/site/year). The substantial genetic diversity that was revealed improved phylogenetic classification. This information will be particularly relevant for improving vaccine strain selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wint Wint Phyu
- Division of International Health (Public Health), Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata 951-8510, Japan
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +81-25-227-2129
| | - Reiko Saito
- Division of International Health (Public Health), Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata 951-8510, Japan
- Infectious Diseases Research Center of Niigata University in Myanmar (IDRC), Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata 951-8510, Japan
| | - Yadanar Kyaw
- Respiratory Medicine Department, ThingangyunSanpya General Hospital, Yangon 110-71, Myanmar
| | - Nay Lin
- Microbiology Section, (200) Bedded Pyinmana General Hospital, Naypyitaw 150-31, Myanmar
| | - Su Mon Kyaw Win
- Infectious Diseases Research Center of Niigata University in Myanmar (IDRC), Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata 951-8510, Japan
| | - Nay Chi Win
- Infectious Diseases Research Center of Niigata University in Myanmar (IDRC), Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata 951-8510, Japan
| | - Lasham Di Ja
- Infectious Diseases Research Center of Niigata University in Myanmar (IDRC), Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata 951-8510, Japan
| | - Khin Thu Zar Htwe
- Department of Microbiology, University of Medicine, Mandalay 050-21, Myanmar
| | - Thin Zar Aung
- Microbiology Section, Mandalay General Hospital, Mandalay 050-31, Myanmar
| | - Htay Htay Tin
- National Health Laboratory, Department of Medical Services, Dagon Township, Yangon 111-91, Myanmar
| | - Eh Htoo Pe
- National Health Laboratory, Department of Medical Services, Dagon Township, Yangon 111-91, Myanmar
| | - Irina Chon
- Division of International Health (Public Health), Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata 951-8510, Japan
- Infectious Diseases Research Center of Niigata University in Myanmar (IDRC), Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata 951-8510, Japan
| | - Keita Wagatsuma
- Division of International Health (Public Health), Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata 951-8510, Japan
- Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo 102-0083, Japan
| | - Hisami Watanabe
- Infectious Diseases Research Center of Niigata University in Myanmar (IDRC), Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata 951-8510, Japan
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Rattanaburi S, Sawaswong V, Nimsamer P, Mayuramart O, Sivapornnukul P, Khamwut A, Chanchaem P, Kongnomnan K, Suntronwong N, Poovorawan Y, Payungporn S. Genome characterization and mutation analysis of human influenza A virus in Thailand. Genomics Inform 2022; 20:e21. [PMID: 35794701 PMCID: PMC9299564 DOI: 10.5808/gi.21077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The influenza A viruses have high mutation rates and cause a serious health problem worldwide. Therefore, this study focused on genome characterization of the viruses isolated from Thai patients based on the next-generation sequencing technology. The nasal swabs were collected from patients with influenza-like illness in Thailand during 2017-2018. Then, the influenza A viruses were detected by reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction and isolated by MDCK cells. The viral genomes were amplified and sequenced by Illumina MiSeq platform. Whole genome sequences were used for characterization, phylogenetic construction, mutation analysis and nucleotide diversity of the viruses. The result revealed that 90 samples were positive for the viruses including 44 of A/H1N1 and 46 of A/H3N2. Among these, 43 samples were successfully isolated and then the viral genomes of 25 samples were completely amplified. Finally, 17 whole genomes of the viruses (A/H1N1, n=12 and A/H3N2, n=5) were successfully sequenced with an average of 232,578 mapped reads and 1,720 genome coverage per sample. Phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that the A/H1N1 viruses were distinguishable from the recommended vaccine strains. However, the A/H3N2 viruses from this study were closely related to the recommended vaccine strains. The nonsynonymous mutations were found in all genes of both viruses, especially in HA and NA genes. The nucleotide diversity analysis revealed negative selection in the PB1, PA, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) genes of the A/H1N1 viruses. High-throughput data in this study allow for genetic characterization of circulating influenza viruses which would be crucial for preparation against pandemic and epidemic outbreaks in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Somruthai Rattanaburi
- Interdisciplinary Program of Biomedical Sciences, Graduate School, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand.,Research Unit of Systems Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Vorthon Sawaswong
- Research Unit of Systems Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Pattaraporn Nimsamer
- Research Unit of Systems Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Oraphan Mayuramart
- Research Unit of Systems Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Pavaret Sivapornnukul
- Research Unit of Systems Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand.,Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Ariya Khamwut
- Research Unit of Systems Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Prangwalai Chanchaem
- Research Unit of Systems Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Kritsada Kongnomnan
- Research Unit of Systems Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Nungruthai Suntronwong
- Center of Excellence in Clinical Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Yong Poovorawan
- Center of Excellence in Clinical Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Sunchai Payungporn
- Research Unit of Systems Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand.,Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
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6
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Mutation in Hemagglutinin Antigenic Sites in Influenza A pH1N1 Viruses from 2015–2019 in the United States Mountain West, Europe, and the Northern Hemisphere. Genes (Basel) 2022; 13:genes13050909. [PMID: 35627294 PMCID: PMC9141826 DOI: 10.3390/genes13050909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2022] [Revised: 05/17/2022] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
H1N1 influenza A virus is a respiratory pathogen that undergoes antigenic shift and antigenic drift to improve viral fitness. Tracking the evolutionary trends of H1N1 aids with the current detection and the future response to new viral strains as they emerge. Here, we characterize antigenic drift events observed in the hemagglutinin (HA) sequence of the pandemic H1N1 lineage from 2015–2019. We observed the substitutions S200P, K147N, and P154S, together with other mutations in structural, functional, and/or epitope regions in 2015–2019 HA protein sequences from the Mountain West region of the United States, the larger United States, Europe, and other Northern Hemisphere countries. We reconstructed multiple phylogenetic trees to track the relationships and spread of these mutations and tested for evidence of selection pressure on HA. We found that the prevalence of amino acid substitutions at positions 147, 154, 159, 200, and 233 significantly changed throughout the studied geographical regions between 2015 and 2019. We also found evidence of coevolution among a subset of these amino acid substitutions. The results from this study could be relevant for future epidemiological tracking and vaccine prediction efforts. Similar analyses in the future could identify additional sequence changes that could affect the pathogenicity and/or infectivity of this virus in its human host.
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Paungpin W, Thongdee M, Ketchim N, Chaiwattanarungruengpaisan S, Saechin A, Sariya L, Kaewchot S, Puthavathana P, Wiriyarat W. Evidence of Influenza A Virus Infection in Cynomolgus Macaques, Thailand. Vet Sci 2022; 9:vetsci9030132. [PMID: 35324860 PMCID: PMC8950150 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci9030132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2022] [Revised: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Little is known about the ecology of influenza A virus (IAV) in nonhuman primates (NHPs). We conducted active surveillance of IAV among 672 cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis) living in 27 free-ranging colonies in Thailand between March and November 2019. A hemagglutination inhibition (HI) assay was employed as the screening test against 16 subtypes of avian influenza virus (AIV) and two strains of the H1 subtype of human influenza virus. The serum samples with HI titers ≥20 were further confirmed by microneutralization (MN) assay. Real-time RT-PCR assay was performed to detect the conserved region of the influenza matrix (M) gene. The seropositive rate for subtypes of IAV, including AIV H1 (1.6%, 11/672), AIV H2 (15.2%, 102/672), AIV H3 (0.3%, 2/672), AIV H9 (3.4%, 23/672), and human H1 (NP-045) (0.9%, 6/672), was demonstrated. We also found antibody against more than one subtype of IAV in 15 out of 128 positive tested sera (11.7%). Moreover, influenza genome could be detected in 1 out of 245 pool swab samples (0.41%). Evidence of IAV infection presented here emphasizes the role of NHPs in the ecology of the virus. Our findings highlight the need to further conduct a continuous active surveillance program in NHP populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weena Paungpin
- The Monitoring and Surveillance Center for Zoonotic Diseases in Wildlife and Exotic Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand; (W.P.); (M.T.); (N.K.); (S.C.); (A.S.); (L.S.)
| | - Metawee Thongdee
- The Monitoring and Surveillance Center for Zoonotic Diseases in Wildlife and Exotic Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand; (W.P.); (M.T.); (N.K.); (S.C.); (A.S.); (L.S.)
| | - Natthaphat Ketchim
- The Monitoring and Surveillance Center for Zoonotic Diseases in Wildlife and Exotic Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand; (W.P.); (M.T.); (N.K.); (S.C.); (A.S.); (L.S.)
| | - Somjit Chaiwattanarungruengpaisan
- The Monitoring and Surveillance Center for Zoonotic Diseases in Wildlife and Exotic Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand; (W.P.); (M.T.); (N.K.); (S.C.); (A.S.); (L.S.)
| | - Aeknarin Saechin
- The Monitoring and Surveillance Center for Zoonotic Diseases in Wildlife and Exotic Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand; (W.P.); (M.T.); (N.K.); (S.C.); (A.S.); (L.S.)
| | - Ladawan Sariya
- The Monitoring and Surveillance Center for Zoonotic Diseases in Wildlife and Exotic Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand; (W.P.); (M.T.); (N.K.); (S.C.); (A.S.); (L.S.)
| | - Supakarn Kaewchot
- Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation, Bangkok 10900, Thailand;
| | - Pilaipan Puthavathana
- Center for Research and Innovation, Faculty of Medical Technology, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand;
| | - Witthawat Wiriyarat
- The Monitoring and Surveillance Center for Zoonotic Diseases in Wildlife and Exotic Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand; (W.P.); (M.T.); (N.K.); (S.C.); (A.S.); (L.S.)
- Correspondence:
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