Wastewater Reclamation in Major Jordanian Industries: A Viable Component of a Circular Economy

Potential reuse of greywater for irrigation of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) plants and its effect on plants growth and soil

The goal of this study is to examine the reactions of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) plants to both untreated greywater and treated greywater filtered through a zeolite. In a randomized block arrangement, tomato plants were irrigated with greywater, treated greywater, or tap water. Number and total fecal coliforms were found in soil, tomato leaves, and fruits. Compared to tap water, greywater has higher levels of Ec, TDS, and COD. The average fruit weight and number for plants irrigated with tap water was 64.42 g and 4.2, while those irrigated with treated greywater were 55.4 g and 3.6, exceeding those irrigated with untreated greywater 39.6 g and 3.2. Treated greywater irrigation increased total chlorophyll content (SPAD) from 57.6 to 62.4 and relative water content from 49.6% to 63%. The leaves contained lower levels of proline (55.9 μmol/g) and total soluble sugar (32.24 mg/g). Researchers found total fecal coliforms in the soil, tomato leaves, and fruits. According to the research, treated greywater may prevent contamination of soil and save water.

Assessment of rainwater harvesting potential from rooftops in Jordan's Twelve Governorates

Rooftop rainwater harvesting (RRWH) offers a potential solution to Jordan's pressing water scarcity problems. Yet, its feasibility and benefits necessitate a thorough assessment, particularly as existing studies on the subject are outdated and often constrained by limited scope or small data sets. To this end, our study assessed the potential of RRWH in Jordan's 12 governorates, utilizing historical rainfall data from 1987 to 2018 and official statistics on population and rooftop areas. The analyses used the Ripple Method and Water Balance Model to determine potential harvestable water volumes, potential water-saving percentages, and optimal tank sizes under different scenarios (i.e., using rainwater to meet the total consumption or only for toilet flushing). The findings reveal that Jordan has a total potential for rooftop rainwater harvesting amounting to 23.74 Mm3/year, corresponding to 4.54% of the total water demand. Should RRWH be implemented across all rooftops, the projected financial savings for Jordan could range from $170 million to $678 million. Among the governorates, Irbid and Amman have the highest potential, with estimated yields of 7.754 Mm3 and 8.453 Mm3 per year, respectively. Based on the best results for the scenario where harvested rainwater is only used to flush toilets, the optimal tank sizes for storing rainwater were estimated to be 2.7 m3 and 2 m3 per household in Ajlun and Irbid, respectively. For a regularized case (October-May), a payback period of 12.5-24 years based on desalination cost was found for an RRWH system capable of meeting thrice the flushing needs of a household. RRWH was showcased as a sustainable solution to Jordan's water scarcity, emphasizing the necessity for broader implementation.

Integrated environmental management and GPS-X modelling for current and future sustainable wastewater treatment: A case study from the Middle East

In the context of today's rapidly changing environmental challenges, accurately predicting the performance and efficiency of environmental management strategies is crucial. Particularly in the Middle East, where research on wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) is notably lacking, addressing this need is imperative. This study investigates the treatment efficiency of a wastewater treatment plant and proposes various techniques to enhance its performance. Employing a case study method, we utilise the GPS-X model to forecast the plant's performance under diverse scenarios, offering solutions for future challenges. The results reveal that the current plant layout operates efficiently, with removal efficiencies for Total Suspended Solids (TSS), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), and Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) at 98.3 %, 95.1 %, and 96.1 %, respectively. The outlet Dissolved Oxygen (DO) of 1.9 mg/L meets local wastewater reuse standards. Furthermore, the GPS-X model forecasts the plant's performance under different scenarios, suggesting the feasibility of a new layout within 20-25 years and the need for additional units after 40 years. As inflow approaches maximum design capacity, simulation results underscore the importance of utilising the full plant design and expanding it for optimal operation over 60 years. This research provides critical insights for improving WWTP performance and emphasizes the significance of strategic planning in addressing long-term environmental management challenges. Moreover, this study represents a pioneering effort in addressing critical water scarcity challenges in Jordan by exploring the potential of treated wastewater (TWW) as a sustainable solution, thus contributing to the advancement of environmental management practices in the region.

The fate of sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim in a micro-aerated anaerobic membrane bioreactor and the occurrence of antibiotic resistance in the permeate

This study investigates the effects, conversions, and resistance induction, following the addition of 150 μg·L-1 of two antibiotics, sulfamethoxazole (SMX) and trimethoprim (TMP), in a laboratory-scale micro-aerated anaerobic membrane bioreactor (MA-AnMBR). TMP and SMX were removed at 97 and 86%, indicating that micro-aeration did not hamper their removal. These antibiotics only affected the pH and biogas composition of the process, with a significant change in pH from 7.8 to 7.5, and a decrease in biogas methane content from 84 to 78%. TMP was rapidly adsorbed onto the sludge and subsequently degraded during the long solids retention time of 27 days. SMX adsorption was minimal, but the applied hydraulic retention time of 2.6 days was sufficiently long to biodegrade SMX. The levels of three antibiotic-resistant genes (ARGs) (sul1, sul2, and dfrA1) and one mobile genetic element biomarker (intI1) were analyzed by qPCR. Additions of the antibiotics increased the relative abundances of all ARGs and intI1 in the MA-AnMBR sludge, with the sul2 gene folding 15 times after 310 days of operation. The MA-AnMBR was able to reduce the concentration of antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) in the permeate by 3 log.

Olive Mill Wastewater (OMW) Treatment Using Photocatalyst Media

A new nanophotocatalysts series of M2Zr2O7 (M = Mn, Cu, and Fe) and doped Fe2Zr2O7 systems were prepared via sol-gel using the pechini method, characterized, and tested in photocatalytic degradation of olive mill wastewater (OMW). The photocatalytic degradation of the prepared materials was evaluated by measuring total phenolic compounds (TPCs) using the Folin-Ciocalteu method for variable pH under a commercial LED lamp (45 W). The removal of TPCs was measured at different contact times ranging from 2 h to 6 days. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and transmission electron microscope (TEM) analysis approved the nano size of (5–17 nm) and quasi-spherical morphology of the prepared materials. ICP-OES analysis confirmed the XRD analysis and approved the structure of the prepared materials. Aggregation of the nanomaterials was observed using TEM imaging. Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) analysis measured a 67 m2/g surface area for Fe2Zr2O7. Doping Fe with Mn increased the surface area to 173 m2/g and increased to 187 m2/g with a further increase of the Mn dopant. Increasing the Mn dopant concentration increased both surface area and photocatalytic degradation. The highest degradation of TPCs was observed for Mn2Zr2O7 around 70% at pH 10 and exposure time up to one day.

Circular Economy Framework for Energy Recovery in Phytoremediation of Domestic Wastewater

Circular economy (CE) strategy is crucial in developing towards sustainable growth. It was created to promote resource utilization and the elimination of waste production. This article aimed to study the possibilities of using the CE framework in wastewater bioremediation and energy recovery using hydroponic tanks. The integration of phytoremediation with bioenergy, construction and lifespan of hydroponic tanks in phytoremediation of wastewater, selection of aquatic plants and the expected challenges in the implementation of CE in phytoremediation of wastewater were discussed. The plant-based biomass harvested and the relative growth rate (RGR) of the selected plants from the phytoremediation process was evaluated. The findings obtained indicated that the selected plants tripled in weight after 14 days cultivation period at different retention times. E. crassipes recorded the highest growth with 2.5 ± 0.03 g g−1 d−1, followed by S. molesta with 1.33 ± 0.05 g g−1 d−1 and then P. stratiotes recorded 0.92 ± 0.27 g g−1 d−1 at the end of the cultivation period. Therefore, the selected plants have been identified as having the potential to be used in phytoremediation as well as a source of energy production. The outcome of our review suggested the adoption of a lifecycle assessment as the CE framework for the phytoremediation of wastewater.

Remote Sensing-Based Agricultural Water Accounting for the North Jordan Valley

Remote sensing can provide important and updated information for agricultural water accounting (AWA). In this study, data from the open-access portal (WaPOR) of the Food and Agricultural Organization was used in AWA to assess levels of agricultural water consumption and to provide possible solutions for water deficiency in the North Jordan Valley (NJV). Consolidated procedures have been applied to complement and validate the WaPOR products. These included the use of climatic and ground data, the multispectral remote-sensing data of Sentinel-2 and Landsat 8 to derive land use/cover maps, GIS layers, and calibrated evapotranspiration (ET) estimates using the surface energy balance algorithm for land (SEBAL). The data of water inflows and outflows were analyzed using the water accounting plus (WA+) system. Results showed that the WaPOR data of actual ET and interception (AETI) were highly correlated with SEBAL-ET, with WaPOR data overestimating ET for irrigated areas. Precipitation data from WaPOR, on the other hand, were underestimating inflow from rainfall, although significant correlations were observed between these data and rainfall records. As a result, the quality of WaPOR data affected the outputs from agricultural water accounting. The main impact on water accounting outputs was the underestimation of percolated water that could be utilized as a possible solution to water deficiency in the NJV. In addition, the water accounting performance indicators were relatively affected, although they reflected the nature of the study area where water deficiency predominated as a result of inter-basin transfer. The study compared outputs from water accounting in terms of the possible solutions to water deficiency in the NJV and concluded that considerable amounts of recoverable water could be developed when compared with the option of developing surface water from the side wadis. Also, it emphasized the important role of remote-sensing sources for providing information for AWA needed for improved water management and governance.

Municipal-to-Industrial Water Reuse via Multi-Stage and Multi-Pass Reverse Osmosis Systems: A Step from Water Scarcity towards Sustainable Development

Wastewater reclamation is a promising solution to growing pressure on limited water resources. In this study we evaluated the efficiency of boron removal from effluent at a water resource recovery facility (WRRF) using a two-stage/two-pass RO membrane system. We propose using measurements of electrical conductivity (EC) as a proxy for boron concentration. We tested our approach to boron estimation and the proposed split partial second pass (SPSP) system at an established WRRF and a pilot plant we constructed at the same location. Results showed that boron in the effluent was directly related to the concentration of EC. The proposed regression equation (y = 4.959 × 10-5x + 0.138) represents a rule of thumb for wastewater plant operators. The proposed SPSP system was optimized through manipulation of operating conditions, achieving a promising total water recovery of 64% at maximum boron rejection (over 85% removal) in a manner that was both cost-effective and flexible. This study demonstrates that two-stage/two-pass split-partial permeate treatment with a high pH for boron removal offers a sustainable freshwater supply option suitable for use by the semiconductor industry.

Treatment of real industrial wastewater with high sulfate concentrations using modified Jordanian kaolin sorbent: batch and modelling studies

In the present study, BaCl₂ modified Jordanian kaolin sorbent (obtained from Mahis, Jordan) was used to remove sulfate-contaminated industrial wastewater. The kaolin sample was pretreated to enhance its adsorption capacity and then characterized using X-Ray fluorescence (XRF) and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR). Equilibrium isotherms for the adsorption parameters were carried out experimentally, and the adsorption data correlated very well with Freundlich and Temkin and Dubinin-Radushkevich models. Furthermore, the adsorption kinetics followed the pseudo-first-order and intraparticle diffusion models perfectly. The estimated value of the maximum adsorption capacity qm = 85.08 mg/g indicates that kaolin has a very high capacity to adsorb sulfate ions at studied parameters. The estimated value of the mean free energy (4.87 kJ/mol) is very low, confirming physical type adsorption. The study results established that modified Jordanian kaolin could serve as a safe and effective natural adsorbent for sulfate-contaminated industrial wastewater.

Pyrolysis of Solid Waste for Bio-Oil and Char Production in Refugees’ Camp: A Case Study

The current research focuses on assessing the potential of municipal solid waste (MSW) conversion into biofuel using pyrolysis process. The MSW samples were taken from Zaatari Syrian Refugee Camp. The physical and chemical characteristics of MSW were studied using proximate and elemental analysis. The results showed that moisture content of MSW is 32.3%, volatile matter (VM) is 67.99%, fixed carbon (FC) content is 5.46%, and ash content is 24.33%. The chemical analysis was conducted using CHNS analyzer and found that the percentage of elements contents: 46% Carbon (C) content, 12% Hydrogen (H2), 2% Nitrogen (N2), 44% Oxygen (O2), and higher heat value (HHV) is 26.14 MJ/kg. The MSW pyrolysis was conducted using tubular fluidized bed reactor (FBR) under inert gas (Nitrogen) at 500 °C with 20 °C/min heating rate and using average particles size 5–10 mm. The products of MSW pyrolysis reaction were: pyrolytic liquid, solid char, and gaseous mixture. The pyrolytic oil and residual char were analyzed using Elemental Analyzer and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR). The results of FTIR showed that oil product has considerable amounts of alkenes, alkanes, and carbonyl groups due to high organic compounds contents in MSW. The elemental analysis results showed that oil product content consists of 55% C, 37% O2, and the HHV is 20.8 MJ/kg. The elemental analysis of biochar showed that biochar content consists of 47% C, 49% O2, and HHV is 11.5 MJ/kg. Further research is recommended to study the effects of parameters as reactor types and operating conditions to assess the feasibility of MSW pyrolysis, in addition to the environmental impact study which is necessary to identify and predict the relevant environmental effects of this process.

Wastewater Treatment, Valorization, and Reuse

This Special Issue includes investigations related to wastewater treatment, recovery, and reuse [...]

Removal of Cadmium, Copper, and Lead From Water Using Bio-Sorbent From Treated Olive Mill Solid Residue

Olive Mill Solid Residue (OMSR) can be utilized as a bio-sorbent in wastewater treatment. Even though several studies on OMSR as a bio-sorbent were carried out, there is still a need to investigate a simple and relatively inexpensive OMSR treatment that increases pollutant removal. In this study; OMSR is used in batch experiments to remove toxic heavy metals from aqueous solutions including Cd²⁺, Cu²⁺, and Pb²⁺ ions. The effect of OMSR treatment (untreated; OMSR-U, treated with n-hexane; OMSR-H, and treated with water; OMSR-W) was investigated by chemical oxygen demand and cation exchange capacity. It was confirmed by both tests that OMSR-W was the best treatment. The same result was re-confirmed by batch uptake experiments of the heavy metal ions. Using OMSR-W as a bio-sorbent; the effect of several parameters such as pH, contact time, bio-sorbent concentration, metal ions concentration, and the presence of other metal species were studied to figure their influence on the metal ions uptake. The optimum conditions for single metal systems were found to occur at pH 5.5, an initial metal concentration of 50 mg/L, a shaking time of 60 minutes, a bio-sorbent concentration of 20 g/L. In binary metal ions solutions; Cd²⁺ uptake was increased in presence of Cu²⁺ or Pb²⁺. However, the uptake of Cu²⁺ and Pb²⁺ was decreased in presence of other metals. The equilibrium sorption data for single metal systems were described by the Langmuir isotherm model. The highest value of maximum uptake was found for Pb²⁺ (4.587 mg/g) followed by Cd²⁺ (4.525 mg/g) and Cu²⁺ (4.367 mg/g). These results show that OMSR-W, which has a very low economical value, could be used for the treatment of wastewater contaminated with heavy metals.