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Deretic V, Lazarou M. A guide to membrane atg8ylation and autophagy with reflections on immunity. J Cell Biol 2022; 221:e202203083. [PMID: 35699692 PMCID: PMC9202678 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.202203083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2022] [Revised: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 05/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The process of membrane atg8ylation, defined herein as the conjugation of the ATG8 family of ubiquitin-like proteins to membrane lipids, is beginning to be appreciated in its broader manifestations, mechanisms, and functions. Classically, membrane atg8ylation with LC3B, one of six mammalian ATG8 family proteins, has been viewed as the hallmark of canonical autophagy, entailing the formation of characteristic double membranes in the cytoplasm. However, ATG8s are now well described as being conjugated to single membranes and, most recently, proteins. Here we propose that the atg8ylation is coopted by multiple downstream processes, one of which is canonical autophagy. We elaborate on these biological outputs, which impact metabolism, quality control, and immunity, emphasizing the context of inflammation and immunological effects. In conclusion, we propose that atg8ylation is a modification akin to ubiquitylation, and that it is utilized by different systems participating in membrane stress responses and membrane remodeling activities encompassing autophagy and beyond.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vojo Deretic
- Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biochemical Research Excellence, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM
| | - Michael Lazarou
- Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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2
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Deretic V. Autophagy in inflammation, infection, and immunometabolism. Immunity 2021; 54:437-453. [PMID: 33691134 PMCID: PMC8026106 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2021.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 337] [Impact Index Per Article: 112.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2020] [Revised: 12/05/2020] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Autophagy is a quality-control, metabolic, and innate immunity process. Normative autophagy affects many cell types, including hematopoietic as well as non-hematopoietic, and promotes health in model organisms and humans. When autophagy is perturbed, this has repercussions on diseases with inflammatory components, including infections, autoimmunity and cancer, metabolic disorders, neurodegeneration, and cardiovascular and liver diseases. As a cytoplasmic degradative pathway, autophagy protects from exogenous hazards, including infection, and from endogenous sources of inflammation, including molecular aggregates and damaged organelles. The focus of this review is on the role of autophagy in inflammation, including type I interferon responses and inflammasome outputs, from molecules to immune cells. A special emphasis is given to the intersections of autophagy with innate immunity, immunometabolism, and functions of organelles such as mitochondria and lysosomes that act as innate immunity and immunometabolic signaling platforms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vojo Deretic
- Autophagy Inflammation and Metabolism (AIM) Center of Biomedical Research Excellence, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA.
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3
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Kumar S, Jain A, Farzam F, Jia J, Gu Y, Choi SW, Mudd MH, Claude-Taupin A, Wester MJ, Lidke KA, Rusten TE, Deretic V. Mechanism of Stx17 recruitment to autophagosomes via IRGM and mammalian Atg8 proteins. J Cell Biol 2018; 217:997-1013. [PMID: 29420192 PMCID: PMC5839791 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.201708039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2017] [Revised: 11/12/2017] [Accepted: 12/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is a conserved eukaryotic process with metabolic, immune, and general homeostatic functions in mammalian cells. Mammalian autophagosomes fuse with lysosomes in a SNARE-driven process that includes syntaxin 17 (Stx17). How Stx17 translocates to autophagosomes is unknown. In this study, we show that the mechanism of Stx17 recruitment to autophagosomes in human cells entails the small guanosine triphosphatase IRGM. Stx17 directly interacts with IRGM, and efficient Stx17 recruitment to autophagosomes requires IRGM. Both IRGM and Stx17 directly interact with mammalian Atg8 proteins, thus being guided to autophagosomes. We also show that Stx17 is significant in defense against infectious agents and that Stx17-IRGM interaction is targeted by an HIV virulence factor Nef.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suresh Kumar
- Autophagy Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biomedical Research Excellence, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM.,Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM
| | - Ashish Jain
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Centre for Cancer Biomedicine, University of Oslo and Institute for Cancer Research, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Farzin Farzam
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM
| | - Jingyue Jia
- Autophagy Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biomedical Research Excellence, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM.,Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM
| | - Yuexi Gu
- Autophagy Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biomedical Research Excellence, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM.,Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM
| | - Seong Won Choi
- Autophagy Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biomedical Research Excellence, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM.,Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM
| | - Michal H Mudd
- Autophagy Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biomedical Research Excellence, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM.,Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM
| | - Aurore Claude-Taupin
- Autophagy Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biomedical Research Excellence, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM.,Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM
| | - Michael J Wester
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM
| | - Keith A Lidke
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM
| | - Tor-Erik Rusten
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Centre for Cancer Biomedicine, University of Oslo and Institute for Cancer Research, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Vojo Deretic
- Autophagy Inflammation and Metabolism Center of Biomedical Research Excellence, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM .,Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM
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Abstract
Macroautophagy/autophagy is a homeostatic process with multiple effects on immunity. One of the pivotal contributions of autophagy in immunity is the cell autonomous control of inflammation. This property leads to systemic consequences and thereby influences the development of innate and adaptive immunity, which promotes or suppresses pathology in various disease contexts. In this review we focus on the intersections between autophagy and inflammasome activation, autophagy and interferons, and autophagy and inflammation in association with infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vojo Deretic
- a Autophagy, Inflammation and Metabolism in Disease (AIM) Center of Biomedical Research Excellence , University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center , Albuquerque , NM , USA.,b Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology , University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center , Albuquerque , NM , USA
| | - Beth Levine
- c Center for Autophagy Research, Department of Internal Medicine , University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center , Dallas , TX , USA.,d Department of Microbiology , University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center , Dallas , TX , USA.,e Howard Hughes Medical Institute , University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center , Dallas , TX , USA
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Deretic V. Autophagy in leukocytes and other cells: mechanisms, subsystem organization, selectivity, and links to innate immunity. J Leukoc Biol 2016; 100:969-978. [PMID: 27493243 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.4mr0216-079r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2016] [Accepted: 07/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is a fundamental biologic process that fulfills general and specialized roles in cytoplasmic homeostasis. The cell-autonomous antimicrobial functions of autophagy have been established in the macrophage. These cells and other leukocytes continue to be the cells of choice in studying autophagy in immunity and inflammation. This review uses several model examples that will be of interest to leukocyte and cell biologists alike. Furthermore, it comprehensively covers the subsystems in autophagy as they apply to all mammalian cells and incorporates the recent progress in our understanding of how these modules come together-a topic that should be of interest to all readers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vojo Deretic
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA
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Deretic V, Kimura T, Timmins G, Moseley P, Chauhan S, Mandell M. Immunologic manifestations of autophagy. J Clin Invest 2015; 125:75-84. [PMID: 25654553 DOI: 10.1172/jci73945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The broad immunologic roles of autophagy span innate and adaptive immunity and are often manifested in inflammatory diseases. The immune effects of autophagy partially overlap with its roles in metabolism and cytoplasmic quality control but typically expand further afield to encompass unique immunologic adaptations. One of the best-appreciated manifestations of autophagy is protection against microbial invasion, but this is by no means limited to direct elimination of intracellular pathogens and includes a stratified array of nearly all principal immunologic processes. This Review summarizes the broad immunologic roles of autophagy. Furthermore, it uses the autophagic control of Mycobacterium tuberculosis as a paradigm to illustrate the breadth and complexity of the immune effects of autophagy.
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Abstract
Autophagy as an immune mechanism controls inflammation and acts as a cell-autonomous defense against intracellular microbes including Mycobacterium tuberculosis. An equally significant role of autophagy is its anti-inflammatory and tissue-sparing function. This combination of antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory actions prevents active disease in animal models. In human populations, genetic links between autophagy, inflammatory bowel disease, and susceptibility to tuberculosis provide further support to these combined roles of autophagy. The autophagic control of M. tuberculosis and prevention of progressive disease provide novel insights into physiological and immune control of tuberculosis. It also offers host-based therapeutic opportunities because autophagy can be pharmacologically modulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vojo Deretic
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131
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The role of viral genomic RNA and nucleocapsid protein in the autophagic clearance of hantavirus glycoprotein Gn. Virus Res 2014; 187:72-6. [PMID: 24412713 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2013.12.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2013] [Revised: 11/18/2013] [Accepted: 12/24/2013] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Hantaviruses have tri-segmented negative sense RNA genome. The viral M-segment RNA encodes a glycoprotein precursor (GPC), which is cleaved into two glycoprotein molecules Gn and Gc that form spikes on the viral envelope. We previously reported that Gn is degraded shortly after synthesis by the host autophagy machinery. However, Gn being an important integral component of the virion, must escape degradation during the packaging and assembly stage of virus replication cycle. The mechanism regulating the intrinsic steady-state levels of Gn during the course of virus replication cycle is not clear. We transfected cells with plasmids expressing viral S-segment RNA, nucleocapsid protein and glycoproteins Gn and Gc and monitored their expression levels over time. These studies revealed that accumulation of nucleocapsid protein, glycoprotein Gc and viral S-segment RNA helped to stabilize Gn. These observations suggest that initiation of virus assembly may help Gn to escape autophagic degradation by yet unknown mechanism.
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Abstract
Autophagy is a process in which a eukaryotic (but not prokaryotic) cell destroys its own components through the lysosomal machinery. This tightly regulated process is essential for normal cell growth, development, and homeostasis, serving to maintain a balance between synthesis and degradation, resulting in the recycling of cellular products. Here we try to expand the concept of autophagy and define it as a general mechanism of regulation encompassing various levels of the biosphere. Interestingly, one of the consequences of such an approach is that we must presume an existence of the autophagic processes in the prokaryotic domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petro Starokadomskyy
- Department of Internal Medicine; University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center; Dallas, TX USA
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Valdivieso AG, Santa-Coloma TA. CFTR activity and mitochondrial function. Redox Biol 2013; 1:190-202. [PMID: 24024153 PMCID: PMC3757715 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2012.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2012] [Accepted: 11/12/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Cystic Fibrosis (CF) is a frequent and lethal autosomal recessive disease, caused by mutations in the gene encoding the Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator (CFTR). Before the discovery of the CFTR gene, several hypotheses attempted to explain the etiology of this disease, including the possible role of a chloride channel, diverse alterations in mitochondrial functions, the overexpression of the lysosomal enzyme α-glucosidase and a deficiency in the cytosolic enzyme glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase. Because of the diverse mitochondrial changes found, some authors proposed that the affected gene should codify for a mitochondrial protein. Later, the CFTR cloning and the demonstration of its chloride channel activity turned the mitochondrial, lysosomal and cytosolic hypotheses obsolete. However, in recent years, using new approaches, several investigators reported similar or new alterations of mitochondrial functions in Cystic Fibrosis, thus rediscovering a possible role of mitochondria in this disease. Here, we review these CFTR-driven mitochondrial defects, including differential gene expression, alterations in oxidative phosphorylation, calcium homeostasis, oxidative stress, apoptosis and innate immune response, which might explain some characteristics of the complex CF phenotype and reveals potential new targets for therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angel Gabriel Valdivieso
- Institute for Biomedical Research (BIOMED CONICET-UCA), Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Biology, School of Medical Sciences, Pontifical Catholic University of Argentina (UCA), Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Abstract
Apoptosis of uninfected bystander cells is a key element of HIV pathogenesis and believed to be the driving force behind the selective depletion of CD4+ T cells leading to immunodeficiency. While several viral proteins have been implicated in this process the complex interaction between Env glycoprotein expressed on the surface of infected cells and the receptor and co-receptor expressing bystander cells has been proposed as a major mechanism. HIV-1 utilizes CD4 as the primary receptor for entry into cells; however, it is the viral co-receptor usage that greatly influences CD4 decline and progression to AIDS. This phenomenon is relatively simple for X4 viruses, which arise later during the course of the disease, are considered to be highly fusogenic, and cause a rapid CD4+ T cell decline. However, in contrast, R5 viruses in general have a greater transmissibility, are encountered early during the disease and have a lesser pathogenic potential than the former. The above generalization gets complicated in numerous situations where R5 viruses persist throughout the disease and are capable of causing a rigorous CD4+ T cell decline. This review will discuss the multiple factors that are reported to influence HIV induced bystander apoptosis and pathogenesis including Env glycoprotein phenotype, virus tropism, disease stage, co-receptor expression on CD4+ T cells, immune activation and therapies targeting the viral envelope.
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Affiliation(s)
- Himanshu Garg
- Center of Excellence for Infectious Disease, Department of Biomedical Science, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, 5001 El Paso Dr, MSB-1 Annex, El Paso, TX 79905, USA.
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Ogawa M, Yoshikawa Y, Kobayashi T, Mimuro H, Fukumatsu M, Kiga K, Piao Z, Ashida H, Yoshida M, Kakuta S, Koyama T, Goto Y, Nagatake T, Nagai S, Kiyono H, Kawalec M, Reichhart JM, Sasakawa C. A Tecpr1-dependent selective autophagy pathway targets bacterial pathogens. Cell Host Microbe 2011; 9:376-89. [PMID: 21575909 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2011.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2011] [Revised: 04/09/2011] [Accepted: 04/27/2011] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Selective autophagy of bacterial pathogens represents a host innate immune mechanism. Selective autophagy has been characterized on the basis of distinct cargo receptors but the mechanisms by which different cargo receptors are targeted for autophagic degradation remain unclear. In this study we identified a highly conserved Tectonin domain-containing protein, Tecpr1, as an Atg5 binding partner that colocalized with Atg5 at Shigella-containing phagophores. Tecpr1 activity is necessary for efficient autophagic targeting of bacteria, but has no effect on rapamycin- or starvation-induced canonical autophagy. Tecpr1 interacts with WIPI-2, a yeast Atg18 homolog and PI(3)P-interacting protein required for phagophore formation, and they colocalize to phagophores. Although Tecpr1-deficient mice appear normal, Tecpr1-deficient MEFs were defective for selective autophagy and supported increased intracellular multiplication of Shigella. Further, depolarized mitochondria and misfolded protein aggregates accumulated in the Tecpr1-knockout MEFs. Thus, we identify a Tecpr1-dependent pathway as important in targeting bacterial pathogens for selective autophagy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michinaga Ogawa
- Division of Bacterial Infection, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1, Shirokanedai, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8639, Japan.
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