Wireless endoscopy in 2020: Will it still be a capsule?

Laparoscopic-Assisted Removal of Two Video Capsule Endoscopy Cameras Retained for More Than Two Years

Video capsule endoscopy (VCE) is used to evaluate the gastrointestinal tract, particularly the small bowel for obscure bleeding, Crohn's disease, and tumors. A rare complication of VCE is the retention of the pill camera. With the expanding use of VCE, it's important to consider the pathology that may lead to retention and approach to treatment. VCE for subacute or intermittent bowel obstruction is considered a contraindication due to the increased risk of retention, however, it may also identify significant pathology. Capsule retention should be treated promptly to prevent complications such as acute small bowel obstruction (SBO) and perforation. This case describes a 51-year-old female who presented with retention of two VCE cameras in the bowel for multiple years. She had intermittent abdominal pain and partial SBOs before the retention. She underwent a successful laparoscopic-assisted surgery removing the two endoscopy cameras and resection of the stenosed small bowel. This case sheds light on the challenges and opportunities in the management of VCE and capsule retention.

Small Bowel Capsule Endoscopy and Enteroscopy: A Shoulder-to-Shoulder Race

Traditional methods have their limitations when it comes to unraveling the mysteries of the small bowel, an area historically seen as the "black box" of the gastrointestinal tract. This is where capsule endoscopy and enteroscopy have stepped in, offering a remarkable synergy that transcends the sum of their individual capabilities. From their introduction, small bowel capsule endoscopy and device-assisted enteroscopy have consistently evolved and improved, both on their own and interdependently. Each technique's history may be told as a success story, and their interaction has revolutionized the approach to the small bowel. Both have advantages that could be ideally combined into a perfect technique: safe, non-invasive, and capable of examining the entire small bowel, taking biopsies, and applying therapeutical interventions. Until the realization of this perfect tool becomes a reality, the key for an optimal approach lies in the right selection of exploration method. In this article, we embark on a journey through the intertwined development of capsule endoscopy and enteroscopy, exploring the origins, technological advancements, clinical applications, and evolving inquiries that have continually reshaped the landscape of small bowel imaging.

Computer vision-based solutions to overcome the limitations of wireless capsule endoscopy

Endoscopic investigation plays a critical role in the diagnosis of gastrointestinal (GI) diseases. Since 2001, Wireless Capsule Endoscopy (WCE) has been available for small bowel exploration and is in continuous development. Over the last decade, WCE has achieved impressive improvements in areas such as miniaturisation, image quality and battery life. As a result, WCE is currently a very useful alternative to wired enteroscopy in the investigation of various small bowel abnormalities and has the potential to become the leading screening technique for the entire gastrointestinal tract. However, commercial solutions still have several limitations, namely incomplete examination and limited diagnostic capacity. These deficiencies are related to technical issues, such as image quality, motion estimation and power consumption management. Computational methods, based on image processing and analysis, can help to overcome these challenges and reduce both the time required by reviewers and human interpretation errors. Research groups have proposed a series of methods including algorithms for locating the capsule or lesion, assessing intestinal motility and improving image quality.In this work, we provide a critical review of computational vision-based methods for WCE image analysis aimed at overcoming the technological challenges of capsules. This article also reviews several representative public datasets used to evaluate the performance of WCE techniques and methods. Finally, some promising solutions of computational methods based on the analysis of multiple-camera endoscopic images are presented.

Biocompatible and Long-Term Monitoring Strategies of Wearable, Ingestible and Implantable Biosensors: Reform the Next Generation Healthcare

Sensors enable the detection of physiological indicators and pathological markers to assist in the diagnosis, treatment, and long-term monitoring of diseases, in addition to playing an essential role in the observation and evaluation of physiological activities. The development of modern medical activities cannot be separated from the precise detection, reliable acquisition, and intelligent analysis of human body information. Therefore, sensors have become the core of new-generation health technologies along with the Internet of Things (IoTs) and artificial intelligence (AI). Previous research on the sensing of human information has conferred many superior properties on sensors, of which biocompatibility is one of the most important. Recently, biocompatible biosensors have developed rapidly to provide the possibility for the long-term and in-situ monitoring of physiological information. In this review, we summarize the ideal features and engineering realization strategies of three different types of biocompatible biosensors, including wearable, ingestible, and implantable sensors from the level of sensor designing and application. Additionally, the detection targets of the biosensors are further divided into vital life parameters (e.g., body temperature, heart rate, blood pressure, and respiratory rate), biochemical indicators, as well as physical and physiological parameters based on the clinical needs. In this review, starting from the emerging concept of next-generation diagnostics and healthcare technologies, we discuss how biocompatible sensors revolutionize the state-of-art healthcare system unprecedentedly, as well as the challenges and opportunities faced in the future development of biocompatible health sensors.

Robot-Aided Magnetic Navigation System for Wireless Capsule Manipulation

Magnetic navigation systems (MNSs) have been developed to use in the diagnosis of gastrointestinal problems. However, most conventional magnetic navigation systems are expensive and have structural problems because of their large weights and volumes. Therefore, this paper proposes C-Mag, a novel compact MNS composed of two electromagnets and a robotic arm. The two electromagnets generate a planar magnetic field, and the robotic arm rotates and translates the electromagnets to manipulate the magnetic capsule in a large 3-dimensional (3-D) space. The C-Mag design considers the payload of the robotic arm and the capacity of the power supply unit. Under these limited conditions, the C-Mag was optimized to generate the maximum magnetic field considering several major factors. Finally, the C-Mag was constructed, and the maximum magnetic field that could be generated in one direction was 18.65 mT in the downward direction. Additionally, the maximum rotating magnetic field was 13.21 mT, which was used to manipulate the capsule. The performance was verified by measuring the generated magnetic field, and it matched well with the simulated result. Additionally, the path-following experiment of the magnetic capsule showed that the proposed C-Mag can effectively manipulate the magnetic capsule in 3-D space using the robotic arm. This study is expected to contribute to the further development of magnetic navigation systems to treat gastrointestinal problems.

Actuators for Implantable Devices: A Broad View

The choice of actuators dictates how an implantable biomedical device moves. Specifically, the concept of implantable robots consists of the three pillars: actuators, sensors, and powering. Robotic devices that require active motion are driven by a biocompatible actuator. Depending on the actuating mechanism, different types of actuators vary remarkably in strain/stress output, frequency, power consumption, and durability. Most reviews to date focus on specific type of actuating mechanism (electric, photonic, electrothermal, etc.) for biomedical applications. With a rapidly expanding library of novel actuators, however, the granular boundaries between subcategories turns the selection of actuators a laborious task, which can be particularly time-consuming to those unfamiliar with actuation. To offer a broad view, this study (1) showcases the recent advances in various types of actuating technologies that can be potentially implemented in vivo, (2) outlines technical advantages and the limitations of each type, and (3) provides use-specific suggestions on actuator choice for applications such as drug delivery, cardiovascular, and endoscopy implants.

An Overview of the Evolution of Capsule Endoscopy Research—Text-Mining Analysis and Publication Trends

There has been a steady increase (annual percentage growth rate of 19.2%, average of 18.3 citations per document) in capsule endoscopy (CE) publications from a global, interdisciplinary research community on a growing range of CE applications over the last 20+ years. We here present the status of CE as a field of research, tracing its evolution over time and providing insight into its potential for diagnostics, prevention and treatment of gastrointestinal (GI) tract diseases. To portray the development of the CE research landscape in the 2000–2021 time span, we analyzed 5764 scientific publications. Analyses were performed using the R language and environment for statistical computing and graphics and VOSviewer, a software developed for scientific literature analysis by scientometricians. The aim of this paper is to provide a wide comprehensive analysis of the trends in CE publications. We thus performed subgroup analysis on the selected papers, including indications, annual percentage growth rate, average citations per document, most publications from research areas/interdisciplinary field of the articles, geography, collaboration networks through institutions, specific clinical keywords and device type. The firm increase in CE publications over the last two decades highlights the overall strength of the technology in GI applications. Furthermore, the introduction to the field of artificial intelligence (AI) tools has been promoting a range of technological advances that keep on affecting the diagnostic potential of CE.

A Novel Biopsy Capsule Robot Based on High-Speed Cutting Tissue

The capsule robot (CR) is a promising endoscopic method in gastrointestinal diagnosis because of its low discomfort to users. Most CRs are used to acquire image information only and lack the ability to collect samples. Although some biopsy capsule robots (BCRs) have been developed, it remains challenging to acquire the intestinal tissue while avoiding tearing and adhesion due to the flexibility of colonic tissue. In this study, we develop a BCR with a novel sampling strategy in which soft tissue is scratched with sharp blades rotating at high speed to avoid tissue tearing. In the BCR design, a spiral spring with prestored energy is used to release high energy within a short period of time, which is difficult for a motor or magnet to perform within a small capacity installation space. The energy of the tightened spiral spring is transmitted to drive sharp blades to rotate quickly via a designed gear mechanism. To guarantee reliable sampling, a Bowden cable is used to transmit the user's manipulation to trigger the rotation of the blades, and the triggering force transmitted by the cable can be monitored in real time by a force sensor installed at the manipulating end. A prototype of the proposed BCR is designed and fabricated, and its performance is tested through in vitro experiments. The results show that the proposed BCR is effective and the size of its acquired samples satisfies clinical requirements.

Capsule endoscopy - a non-invasive modality to investigate the GI tract: out with the old and in with the new?

INTRODUCTION

Capsule endoscopy has had significant development since it was introduced into the field of medicine in 2000. It is non-invasive, well tolerated, does not require sedation and is a first-line small bowel investigative modality. As it transits through the entire gastrointestinal (GI) tract, it has the potential to provide a pan-enteric examination.

AREAS COVERED

In this review we will discuss the new diagnostic modalities along with traditional methods which have been used for examination of the gastro intestinal (GI) tract. The main focus of this review will be on the use of capsule endoscopy for pan-enteric examination.

EXPERT OPINION

Capsule endoscopy is an accepted first-line investigation for the small bowel. Diagnostic sensitivity of the colon capsule is comparable to colonoscopy in controlled trials and is being evaluated in high-risk patients in routine clinical practice in national programs. Preliminary data suggest that a magnetic-controlled examination of the upper GI tract could be developed to enable a complete upper GI examination.

Soft hybrid intrinsically motile robot for wireless small bowel enteroscopy

BACKGROUND

Difficulties in establishing diagnosis of small bowel (SB) disorders, prevented their effective treatment. This problem was largely resolved by wireless capsule endoscopy (WCE), which has since become the first line investigation for suspected SB disorders. Several types of WCE pills are now used in clinical practice, despite their limitations and complications. WCE pills are large, rigid and immotile capsules. When swallowed, they provide SB enteroscopy downloaded to a data logger carried by the patient. Most of the complications of WCEs result from lack of intrinsic locomotion: incomplete examination, capsule retention and impaction within strictures. In addition, the rigid nature and size of current generation of WCE pills is accompanied by 0.1% inability to swallow the pill by patients with normal esophageal motility.

METHODS

The aim of this communication is to describe the initial prototype, P1, which is thinner and slightly longer than the current generation of WCEs. In addition, it exhibits intrinsic active locomotion, produced by vibrating silicon legs. These generate a controlled-skid locomotion on the small bowel mucosal surface, rendered slippery by surface mucus and intraluminal surfactant bile salts. We demonstrate the mechanism responsible for the active locomotion of P1, which we consider translatable into a working prototype, suitable for further R&D for eventual clinical translation.

RESULTS

The shape and attachment of the rubber vibrating legs to vibrating actuators, have been designed specifically to produce a tight clockwise circular motion. When inserted inside a circular tube in vitro of equivalent diameter to human small intestine, the intrinsic circular clockwise motion of P1 translates into a linear locomotion by the constraints imposed by the surrounding circular walls of SB and rest of the gastrointestinal tract. This design ensures device stability during transit, essential for imaging and targeting lesions encountered during the enteroscopy. We preformed two experiments: (i) transit of P1 through a phantom consisting of a segment of PVC tube placed on a horizontal surface and (ii) transit through a transparent slippery nylon sleeve insufflated with air. In the PVC tube, its transit rate averages 15.6 mm/s, which is too fast for endoscopy: whereas inside the very slippery nylon sleeve insufflated with air, the average transit rate of P1 is reduced to 5.9 mm/s, i.e., ideal for inspection endoscopy.

CONCLUSIONS

These in-vitro experiments indicate that the P1 hybrid soft robot prototype has the potential specifically for clinical translation for SB enteroscopy.

360º optoacoustic capsule endoscopy at 50 Hz for esophageal imaging

Gastrointestinal (GI) endoscopy is a common medical diagnostic procedure used for esophageal cancer detection. Current emerging capsule optoacoustic endoscopes, however, suffer from low pulse repetition rates and slow scanning units limit attainable imaging frame rates. Consequently, motion artifacts result in inaccurate spatial mapping and misinterpretation of data. To overcome these limitations, we report a 360º, 50 Hz frame rate, distal scanning capsule optoacoustic endoscope. The translational capability of the instrument for human GI tract imaging was characterized with an Archimedean spiral phantom consisting of twelve 100 µm sutures, a stainless steel mesh with a pitch of 3 mm and an ex vivo pig esophagus sample. We estimated an imaging penetration depth of ~0.84 mm in vivo by immersing the mesh phantom in intralipid solution to simulate light scattering in human esophageal tissue and validated our findings ex vivo using pig esophagus. This proof-of-concept study demonstrates the translational potential of the proposed video-rate endoscope for human GI tract imaging.

Clinical impact of wireless capsule endoscopy for small bowel investigation (Review)

Wireless capsule endoscopy is currently considered the gold standard in the investigation of the small bowel. It is both practical for physicians and easily accepted by patients. Prior to its development, two types of imaging investigations of the small bowel were available: radiologic and endoscopic. The first category is less invasive and comfortable for patients; it presents the ensemble of the small bowel, but it may imply radiation exposure. Images are constructed based on signals emitted by various equipment and require special interpretation. Endoscopic techniques provide real-time colored images acquired by miniature cameras from inside the small bowel, require interpretation only from a medical point of view, may allow the possibility to perform biopsies, but the investigation only covers a part of the small bowel and are more difficult to accept by patients. Wireless capsule endoscopy is the current solution that overcomes a part of the previous drawbacks: it covers the entire small bowel, it provides real-time images acquired by cameras, it is painless for patients, and it represents an abundant source of information for physicians. Yet, it lacks motion control and the possibility to perform biopsies or administer drugs. However, significant effort has been oriented in these directions by technical and medical teams, and more advanced capsules will surely be available in the following years.

Advances in optical gastrointestinal endoscopy: a technical review

Optical endoscopy is the primary diagnostic and therapeutic tool for management of gastrointestinal (GI) malignancies. Most GI neoplasms arise from precancerous lesions; thus, technical innovations to improve detection and diagnosis of precancerous lesions and early cancers play a pivotal role in improving outcomes. Over the last few decades, the field of GI endoscopy has witnessed enormous and focused efforts to develop and translate accurate, user-friendly, and minimally invasive optical imaging modalities. From a technical point of view, a wide range of novel optical techniques is now available to probe different aspects of light-tissue interaction at macroscopic and microscopic scales, complementing white light endoscopy. Most of these new modalities have been successfully validated and translated to routine clinical practice. Herein, we provide a technical review of the current status of existing and promising new optical endoscopic imaging technologies for GI cancer screening and surveillance. We summarize the underlying principles of light-tissue interaction, the imaging performance at different scales, and highlight what is known about clinical applicability and effectiveness. Furthermore, we discuss recent discovery and translation of novel molecular probes that have shown promise to augment endoscopists' ability to diagnose GI lesions with high specificity. We also review and discuss the role and potential clinical integration of artificial intelligence-based algorithms to provide decision support in real time. Finally, we provide perspectives on future technology development and its potential to transform endoscopic GI cancer detection and diagnosis.

Next-generation ingestible devices: sensing, locomotion and navigation

There is significant interest in exploring the human body's internal activities and measuring important parameters to understand, treat and diagnose the digestive system environment and related diseases. Wireless capsule endoscopy (WCE) is widely used for gastrointestinal (GI) tract exploration due to its effectiveness as it provides no pain and is totally tolerated by the patient. Current ingestible sensing technology provides a valuable diagnostic tool to establish a platform for monitoring the physiological and biological activities inside the human body. It is also used for visualizing the GI tract to observe abnormalities by recording the internal cavity while moving. However, the capsule endoscopy is still passive, and there is no successful locomotion method to control its mobility through the whole GI tract. Drug delivery, localization of abnormalities, cost reduction and time consumption are improvements that can be gained from having active ingestible WCEs. In this article, the current technological developments of ingestible devices including sensing, locomotion and navigation are discussed and compared. The main features required to implement next-generation active WCEs are explored. The methods are evaluated in terms of the most important features such as safety, velocity, complexity of design, control, and power consumption.

Double-headed small-bowel capsule endoscopy: Real-world experience from a multi-centre British study

INTRODUCTION

Capsule endoscopy (CE) is well established the investigation of small-bowel (SB) pathology. We compared the use of double-headed (DH) capsules, to conventional single-headed (SH), in a real-world patient cohort in the first multicentre British study.

METHODS

Over 9 months, patients referred for routine SBCE at 4 tertiary referral centres in the UK underwent DH CE instead of conventional SH using MiroCam^Ⓡ MC2000 as per local protocols. One head (L/R) was chosen at random and reported by an expert reviewer. The DH recordings, anonymised and randomised, reported by another expert or re-read after a 4-week interval. For each CE, numbers and types of findings and overall conclusion/diagnosis were compared between SH and DH examinations.

RESULTS

211 CEs were performed. 7 failed to reach the SB; 204 analysed. Indications were: SB bleeding (n = 94); ?SB inflammation or reassessment of known inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) (n = 84); ?SB neoplasia including suspicious radiological imaging (n = 15); and, others e.g. ?celiac disease (n = 11). For SB bleeding: 27/94 (28.7%) examinations reported differences between SH and DH readings. In 17 (18.1%) the findings were clinically significant. SH CE missed angiectasias (5 pts), SB inflammation (7 pts), oesophagitis (2 pts) and SB masses (2 pts). In 1 patient, the extent of angiectasias seen was greater on the DH reading. For IBD: findings differed in 30/84 (35.7%) of CEs; 11 (13.1%) were clinically significant. In 5, signs of active inflammation were missed by the SH reading. In 6, assessment of extent/severity differed. For?SB neoplasia findings differed in 2/15 (13.3%) of examinations. Both were clinically significant. For others: 1/11 (9.1%) examinations differed; however, not deemed clinically significant. Overall, use of DH CE impacted the diagnosis in 30/204 (14.7%).

CONCLUSIONS

The use of DH CE provides more information with the potential to change clinical diagnosis and therefore management. Therefore, the routine adoption of DH CE in SB assessment should be considered.

Feasibility of a second-generation colon capsule in visualization of the upper gastrointestinal tract

Background

Capsule endoscopy for visualization of the entire gastrointestinal tract is a challenge. A second-generation colon capsule endoscopy system (CCE-2) performed well in the colon and small intestine, but its utility in the upper gastrointestinal duct is not clear. We evaluated the use of the CCE-2 in the visualization of the upper gastrointestinal tract.

Methods

We performed a retrospective study and further evaluated CCE-2 images using the typical landmarks of esophagus and stomach. The two imagers located at each end of the CCE-2 system were defined as imager1 (green) and imager2 (yellow). Two endoscopists read the images, and they were blinded to the other reader’s results. All of the images from the two imagers were separately reviewed.

Results

Images from 127 subjects were analyzed. This study demonstrated the comprehensive visualization of 71.7% of esophageal landmarks and 89.8% of gastric landmarks using the CCE-2. The two CCE-2 imagers were not identical, and the lighter imager (imager2, yellow) was superior to the heavier imager (imager1, green) (78% vs. 33.1%) in the stomach. Compared with the use of one imager, the use of two imagers was superior (two-imager vs. imager1, 89.8% vs. 33.1%; two-imager vs. imager2, 89.8% vs. 78%) in the stomach. Two-imager combination analysis detected a total of 160 positive findings. In contrast, single-imager analysis with imager1 and imager2 detected 133 and 137 findings, respectively. Two-imager combination analysis provided 20.3% and 16.8% more findings than imager1 and imager2, respectively. The two imagers complemented each other to detect more lesions.

Conclusions

The CCE-2 system is feasible for use in the upper gastrointestinal tract and may be considered an optional tool for upper gastrointestinal imaging. This system may represent a good choice for complete gastrointestinal duct screening. Compared with the use of one imager, the two-imager combination provided improved upper gastrointestinal tract mucosal visualization.

A low-cost wireless endoscope camera: a preliminary report

Background

Technology currently used for surgical endoscopy was developed and is manufactured in high-income economies. The cost of this equipment makes technology transfer to resource constrained environments difficult. We aimed to design an affordable wireless endoscope to aid visualisation during rigid endoscopy and minimally invasive surgery (MIS). The initial prototype aimed to replicate a 4-mm lens used in rigid cystoscopy.

Methods

Focus was placed on using open-source resources to develop the wireless endoscope to significantly lower the cost and make the device accessible for resource-constrained settings. An off the shelf miniature single-board computer module was used because of its low cost (US$10) and its ability to handle high-definition (720p) video. Open-source Linux software made monitor mode (“hotspot”) wireless video transmission possible. A 1280 × 720 pixel high-definition tube camera was used to generate the video signal. Video is transmitted to a standard laptop computer for display. Bench testing included latency of wireless digital video transmission. Comparison to industry standard wired cameras was made including weight and cost. The battery life was also assessed.

Results

In comparison with industry standard cystoscope lens, wired camera, video processing unit and light source, the prototype costs substantially less. (US$ 230 vs 28 000). The prototype is light weight (184 g), has no cables tethering and has acceptable battery life (of over 2 h, using a 1200 mAh battery). The camera transmits video wirelessly in near real time with only imperceptible latency of < 200 ms. Image quality is high definition at 30 frames per second. Colour rendering is good, and white balancing is possible. Limitations include the lack of a zoom.

Conclusion

The novel wireless endoscope camera described here offers equivalent high-definition video at a markedly reduced cost to contemporary industry wired units and could contribute to making minimally invasive surgery possible in resource-constrained environments.

Current Advances in Drug Delivery Systems for Capsule Endoscopy

BACKGROUND

Oral administration of medications and current oral modified-release systems are the most preferred drug delivery routes, but they provide efficacy up to 12-24 hours per administration and are not useful when the patient has short transit time. The once-daily administered formulations are the endpoint of many types of drug development, and some innovations in capsule endoscopy (CE) can solve this problem.

OBJECTIVE

This review aims to reveal recent advances in drug delivery systems (DDS) for CE as an essential field of research for more precise drug targeting at the gastrointestinal (GI) tract.

METHODS

We performed a narrative overview of the MEDLINE database from 1991-2020 using the keywords of DDS and CE with synthesizing the findings, hand searches, and authoritative articles.

RESULTS

There are microelectromechanical systems and non-mechanical patent technologies for DDS for CE, and the implementation of wireless-capsule medical devices into the human body will provide new diagnostic and therapeutic options. Integrating biomedical CE with DDS and the cloud technology will bring remote real-time feedbackbased automated treatment or responsive medication.

CONCLUSION

Swallowable drug delivery systems for capsule endoscopy brings an entirely new approach for diagnostic and therapeutic methods in digestive diseases.

Capacitive sensing of triglyceride film reactions: a proof-of-concept demonstration for sensing in simulated duodenal contents with gastrointestinal targeting capsule system

Ingestible capsule systems continue to evolve to overcome drawbacks associated with traditional gastrointestinal (GI) diagnostic and therapeutic processes, such as limitations on which sections of the GI tract can be accessed or the inability to measure local biomarker concentrations. We report an integrated capsule sensing system, utilizing a hybrid packaging scheme coupled with triglyceride film-coated capacitive sensors, for measuring biochemical species present in the duodenum, such as pancreatic lipase and bile acids. The system uses microfabricated capacitive sensors interfaced with a Bluetooth low-energy (BLE)-microcontroller, allowing wireless connectivity to a mobile app. The triglyceride films insulate the sensor surface and react either with 0.01-1 mM lipase via hydrolysis or 0.07-7% w/v bile acids via emulsification in simulated fluids, leading to measurable changes in capacitance. Cross reactivity of the triglyceride films is evaluated in both phosphate buffered saline (PBS) as well as pancreatic trypsin solutions. The film morphology is observed after exposure to each stimulus to better understand how these changes alter the sensor capacitance. The capsule utilizes a 3D-printed package coated with polymers that remain intact in acid solution (mimicking gastric conditions), then dissolve at a duodenum-mimicking neutral pH for triggered opening of the sensing chamber from which we can subsequently detect the presence of pancreatic lipase. This device strategy represents a significant step towards using embedded packaging and triglyceride-based materials to target specific regions of the GI tract and sensing biochemical contents for evaluating gastrointestinal health.

Frontiers of Robotic Colonoscopy: A Comprehensive Review of Robotic Colonoscopes and Technologies

Flexible colonoscopy remains the prime mean of screening for colorectal cancer (CRC) and the gold standard of all population-based screening pathways around the world. Almost 60% of CRC deaths could be prevented with screening. However, colonoscopy attendance rates are affected by discomfort, fear of pain and embarrassment or loss of control during the procedure. Moreover, the emergence and global thread of new communicable diseases might seriously affect the functioning of contemporary centres performing gastrointestinal endoscopy. Innovative solutions are needed: artificial intelligence (AI) and physical robotics will drastically contribute for the future of the healthcare services. The translation of robotic technologies from traditional surgery to minimally invasive endoscopic interventions is an emerging field, mainly challenged by the tough requirements for miniaturization. Pioneering approaches for robotic colonoscopy have been reported in the nineties, with the appearance of inchworm-like devices. Since then, robotic colonoscopes with assistive functionalities have become commercially available. Research prototypes promise enhanced accessibility and flexibility for future therapeutic interventions, even via autonomous or robotic-assisted agents, such as robotic capsules. Furthermore, the pairing of such endoscopic systems with AI-enabled image analysis and recognition methods promises enhanced diagnostic yield. By assembling a multidisciplinary team of engineers and endoscopists, the paper aims to provide a contemporary and highly-pictorial critical review for robotic colonoscopes, hence providing clinicians and researchers with a glimpse of the major changes and challenges that lie ahead.

Gastrointestinal diagnosis using non-white light imaging capsule endoscopy

Capsule endoscopy (CE) has proved to be a powerful tool in the diagnosis and management of small bowel disorders since its introduction in 2001. However, white light imaging (WLI) is the principal technology used in clinical CE at present, and therefore, CE is limited to mucosal inspection, with diagnosis remaining reliant on visible manifestations of disease. The introduction of WLI CE has motivated a wide range of research to improve its diagnostic capabilities through integration with other sensing modalities. These developments have the potential to overcome the limitations of WLI through enhanced detection of subtle mucosal microlesions and submucosal and/or transmural pathology, providing novel diagnostic avenues. Other research aims to utilize a range of sensors to measure physiological parameters or to discover new biomarkers to improve the sensitivity, specificity and thus the clinical utility of CE. This multidisciplinary Review summarizes research into non-WLI CE devices by organizing them into a taxonomic structure on the basis of their sensing modality. The potential of these capsules to realize clinically useful virtual biopsy and computer-aided diagnosis (CADx) is also reported.

Clinical application of magnetically controlled capsule gastroscopy in gastric disease diagnosis: recent advances

Magnetically controlled capsule gastroscopy (MCCG) is a novel system primarily used for the diagnosis of gastric disease. It consists of an endoscopic capsule with magnetic material inside, external guidance magnet equipment, data recorder and computer workstation. Several clinical trials have demonstrated that MCCG is comparable in accuracy in diagnosing gastric focal disease when compared to conventional gastroscopy. Further clinical studies are needed to test the diagnostic accuracy and improve the functioning of MCCG. This novel MCCG system could be a promising alternative for screening for gastric diseases, with the advantages of no anesthesia required, comfort and high acceptance across populations.

DINOSARC: Color Features Based on Selective Aggregation of Chromatic Image Components for Wireless Capsule Endoscopy

Wireless Capsule Endoscopy (WCE) is a noninvasive diagnostic technique enabling the inspection of the whole gastrointestinal (GI) tract by capturing and wirelessly transmitting thousands of color images. Proprietary software "stitches" the images into videos for examination by accredited readers. However, the videos produced are of large length and consequently the reading task becomes harder and more prone to human errors. Automating the WCE reading process could contribute in both the reduction of the examination time and the improvement of its diagnostic accuracy. In this paper, we present a novel feature extraction methodology for automated WCE image analysis. It aims at discriminating various kinds of abnormalities from the normal contents of WCE images, in a machine learning-based classification framework. The extraction of the proposed features involves an unsupervised color-based saliency detection scheme which, unlike current approaches, combines both point and region-level saliency information and the estimation of local and global image color descriptors. The salient point detection process involves estimation of DIstaNces On Selective Aggregation of chRomatic image Components (DINOSARC). The descriptors are extracted from superpixels by coevaluating both point and region-level information. The main conclusions of the experiments performed on a publicly available dataset of WCE images are (a) the proposed salient point detection scheme results in significantly less and more relevant salient points; (b) the proposed descriptors are more discriminative than relevant state-of-the-art descriptors, promising a wider adoption of the proposed approach for computer-aided diagnosis in WCE.

Upper gastrointestinal tract capsule endoscopy using a nurse-led protocol: First reported experience

AIM

To test the feasibility and performance of a novel upper gastrointestinal (GI) capsule endoscope using a nurse-led protocol.

METHODS

We conducted a prospective cohort analysis of patients who declined gastroscopy (oesophagogastroduodenoscopy, OGD) but who consented to upper GI capsule endoscopy. Patients swallowed the upper GI capsule following ingestion of 1 liter of water (containing simethicone). A series of positional changes were used to exploit the effects of water flow and move the upper GI capsule from one gravity-dependent area to another using a nurse-led protocol. Capsule transit time, video reading time, mucosal visualisation, pathology detection and patient tolerance was evaluated.

RESULTS

Fifty patients were included in the study. The mean capsule transit times in the oesophagus and stomach were 28 s and 68 min respectively. Visualisation of the following major anatomical landmarks was achieved (graded 1-5: Poor to excellent): Oesophagus, 4.8 (± 0.5); gastro-oesophageal junction (GOJ), 4.8 (± 0.8); cardia, 4.8 (± 0.8); fundus, 3.8 (± 1.2); body, 4.5 (± 1); antrum, 4.5 (± 1); pylorus, 4.7 (± 0.8); duodenal bulb, 4.7 (± 0.7); second part of the duodenum (D2), 4.7 (± 1). The upper GI capsule reached D2 in 64% of patients. The mean video reading time was 48 min with standard playback mode and 20 min using Quickview (P = 0.0001). No pathology was missed using Quickview. Procedural tolerance was excellent. No complications were seen with the upper GI capsule.

CONCLUSION

The upper GI capsule achieved excellent views of the upper GI tract. Future studies should compare the diagnostic accuracy between upper GI capsule and OGD.

Deep Endoscopic Visual Measurements

Robotic endoscopic systems offer a minimally invasive approach to the examination of internal body structures, and their application is rapidly extending to cover the increasing needs for accurate therapeutic interventions. In this context, it is essential for such systems to be able to perform measurements, such as measuring the distance traveled by a wireless capsule endoscope, so as to determine the location of a lesion in the gastrointestinal tract, or to measure the size of lesions for diagnostic purposes. In this paper, we investigate the feasibility of performing contactless measurements using a computer vision approach based on neural networks. The proposed system integrates a deep convolutional image registration approach and a multilayer feed-forward neural network into a novel architecture. The main advantage of this system, with respect to the state-of-the-art ones, is that it is more generic in the sense that it is 1) unconstrained by specific models, 2) more robust to nonrigid deformations, and 3) adaptable to most of the endoscopic systems and environment, while enabling measurements of enhanced accuracy. The performance of this system is evaluated under ex vivo conditions using a phantom experimental model and a robotically assisted test bench. The results obtained promise a wider applicability and impact in endoscopy in the era of big data.

In Vivo Characterization of a Wireless Telemetry Module for a Capsule Endoscopy System Utilizing a Conformal Antenna

This paper describes the design, fabrication, packaging, and performance characterization of a conformal helix antenna created on the outside of a capsule endoscope designed to operate at a carrier frequency of 433 MHz within human tissue. Wireless data transfer was established between the integrated capsule system and an external receiver. The telemetry system was tested within a tissue phantom and in vivo porcine models. Two different types of transmission modes were tested. The first mode, replicating normal operating conditions, used data packets at a steady power level of 0 dBm, while the capsule was being withdrawn at a steady rate from the small intestine. The second mode, replicating the worst-case clinical scenario of capsule retention within the small bowel, sent data with stepwise increasing power levels of -10, 0, 6, and 10 dBm, with the capsule fixed in position. The temperature of the tissue surrounding the external antenna was monitored at all times using thermistors embedded within the capsule shell to observe potential safety issues. The recorded data showed, for both modes of operation, a low error transmission of 10^-3 packet error rate and 10^-5 bit error rate and no temperature increase of the tissue according to IEEE standards.

Accelerated life-test methods and results for implantable electronic devices with adhesive encapsulation

We have developed and applied new methods to estimate the functional life of miniature, implantable, wireless electronic devices that rely on non-hermetic, adhesive encapsulants such as epoxy. A comb pattern board with a high density of interdigitated electrodes (IDE) could be used to detect incipient failure from water vapor condensation. Inductive coupling of an RF magnetic field was used to provide DC bias and to detect deterioration of an encapsulated comb pattern. Diodes in the implant converted part of the received energy into DC bias on the comb pattern. The capacitance of the comb pattern forms a resonant circuit with the inductor by which the implant receives power. Any moisture affects both the resonant frequency and the Q-factor of the resonance of the circuitry, which was detected wirelessly by its effects on the coupling between two orthogonal RF coils placed around the device. Various defects were introduced into the comb pattern devices to demonstrate sensitivity to failures and to correlate these signals with visual inspection of failures. Optimized encapsulation procedures were validated in accelerated life tests of both comb patterns and a functional neuromuscular stimulator under development. Strong adhesive bonding between epoxy and electronic circuitry proved to be necessary and sufficient to predict 1 year packaging reliability of 99.97% for the neuromuscular stimulator.

An innovative robotic platform for magnetically-driven painless colonoscopy

Colorectal cancer (CRC) represents a significant medical threat with a dramatic impact on the healthcare system with around 1.3 million patients worldwide, causing more than 700 thousand deaths annually. A key-aspect to successful and cost-effective disease management is represented by the early detection of CRC at asymptomatic stage. For this reason, population screening is highly recommended for patients older than 50 years or at high risk for familiarity. Currently, the standard endoscopic techniques do not meet this need. In recent years, innovative endoscopic robotic techniques and active locomotion devices have been developed as alternatives to conventional colonoscopy. The magnetically-driven robotic platform, presented by the authors, is conceived to perform less invasive and more comfortable colonoscopy with the aim to promote screening campaigns for detection of early colorectal neoplasm.

Are Current Advances of Compression Algorithms for Capsule Endoscopy Enough? A Technical Review

The recent technological advances in capsule endoscopy system have revolutionized the healthcare system by introducing new techniques and functionalities to diagnose gastrointestinal tract. These techniques improve diagnostic accuracy and reduce the risk of hospitalization. Although many benefits of capsule endoscopy are known, there are still limitations including lower battery life, higher bandwidth, poor image quality and lower frame rate, which have restricted its wide use. In order to solve these limitations, the importance of a low-cost compression algorithm, that produces higher frame rate with better image quality and yet consumes lower bandwidth and transmission power, is paramount. While several review papers have been published describing the capability of capsule endoscope in terms of its functionality and emerging features, an extensive review on the compression algorithms from past and for future applications is still of great interest. Hence, in this review, we aim to address the issue by exploring the characteristics of endoscopic images, analyzing the strengths and weaknesses of useful compression techniques, and making suggestions for possible future adaptation.

A magnetically actuated anchoring system for a wireless endoscopic capsule

In this study, we propose a new magnetically actuated anchoring system for wireless capsule endoscopes (WCE) by employing the principle of a switchable magnetic spring. A force model is derived to predict the magnetic force needed to support the interaction between the anchors and the intestinal lumen. The theoretical and experimental analysis conducted shows that the magnetic spring is capable of providing the force needed to activate the anchoring mechanism, which consists of four foldable legs. A prototype capsule with a size comparable with the size of a commercial WCE was designed, fabricated, and tested. The in-vitro tests with a real small intestine show that the proposed anchoring mechanism is able to raise the friction force between the anchoring legs and inner wall of the intestine by more than two times after its activation using an external magnetic field. Experimental results presented demonstrate that the proposed anchoring system, which has a low foot-print not taking up too much space on the capsule, can provide a reliable anchoring capability with the capsule inside the intestinal lumen.

Development of a Mechanical Scanning Device With High-Frequency Ultrasound Transducer for Ultrasonic Capsule Endoscopy

Wireless capsule endoscopy has opened a new era by enabling remote diagnostic assessment of the gastrointestinal tract in a painless procedure. Video capsule endoscopy is currently commercially available worldwide. However, it is limited to visualization of superficial tissue. Ultrasound (US) imaging is a complementary solution as it is capable of acquiring transmural information from the tissue wall. This paper presents a mechanical scanning device incorporating a high-frequency transducer specifically as a proof of concept for US capsule endoscopy (USCE), providing information that may usefully assist future research. A rotary solenoid-coil-based motor was employed to rotate the US transducer with sectional electronic control. A set of gears was used to convert the sectional rotation to circular rotation. A single-element focused US transducer with 39-MHz center frequency was used for high-resolution US imaging, connected to an imaging platform for pulse generation and image processing. Key parameters of US imaging for USCE applications were evaluated. Wire phantom imaging and tissue phantom imaging have been conducted to evaluate the performance of the proposed method. A porcine small intestine specimen was also used for imaging evaluation in vitro. Test results demonstrate that the proposed device and rotation mechanism are able to offer good image resolution ( [Formula: see text]) of the lumen wall, and they, therefore, offer a viable basis for the fabrication of a USCE device.

Acoustic Sensing and Ultrasonic Drug Delivery in Multimodal Theranostic Capsule Endoscopy

Video capsule endoscopy (VCE) is now a clinically accepted diagnostic modality in which miniaturized technology, an on-board power supply and wireless telemetry stand as technological foundations for other capsule endoscopy (CE) devices. However, VCE does not provide therapeutic functionality, and research towards therapeutic CE (TCE) has been limited. In this paper, a route towards viable TCE is proposed, based on multiple CE devices including important acoustic sensing and drug delivery components. In this approach, an initial multimodal diagnostic device with high-frequency quantitative microultrasound that complements video imaging allows surface and subsurface visualization and computer-assisted diagnosis. Using focused ultrasound (US) to mark sites of pathology with exogenous fluorescent agents permits follow-up with another device to provide therapy. This is based on an US-mediated targeted drug delivery system with fluorescence imaging guidance. An additional device may then be utilized for treatment verification and monitoring, exploiting the minimally invasive nature of CE. While such a theranostic patient pathway for gastrointestinal treatment is presently incomplete, the description in this paper of previous research and work under way to realize further components for the proposed pathway suggests it is feasible and provides a framework around which to structure further work.

Ingestible Sensors

Ingestible sensing capsules are fast emerging as a critical technology that has the ability to greatly impact health, nutrition, and clinical areas. These ingestible devices are noninvasive and hence are very attractive for customers. With widespread access to smart phones connected to the Internet, the data produced by this technology can be readily seen and reviewed online, and accessed by both users and physicians. The outputs provide invaluable information to reveal the state of gut health and disorders as well as the impact of food, medical supplements, and environmental changes on the gastrointestinal tract. One unique feature of such ingestible sensors is that their passage through the gut lumen gives them access to each individual organ of the gastrointestinal tract. Therefore, ingestible sensors offer the ability to gather images and monitor luminal fluid and the contents of each gut segment including electrolytes, enzymes, metabolites, hormones, and the microbial communities. As such, an incredible wealth of knowledge regarding the functionality and state of health of individuals through key gut biomarkers can be obtained. This Review presents an overview of the gut structure and discusses current and emerging digestible technologies. The text is an effort to provide a comprehensive overview of ingestible sensing capsules, from both a body physiology point of view as well as a technological view, and to detail the potential information that they can generate.

Localization and Tracking of Implantable Biomedical Sensors

Implantable sensor systems are effective tools for biomedical diagnosis, visualization and treatment of various health conditions, attracting the interest of researchers, as well as healthcare practitioners. These systems efficiently and conveniently provide essential data of the body part being diagnosed, such as gastrointestinal (temperature, pH, pressure) parameter values, blood glucose and pressure levels and electrocardiogram data. Such data are first transmitted from the implantable sensor units to an external receiver node or network and then to a central monitoring and control (computer) unit for analysis, diagnosis and/or treatment. Implantable sensor units are typically in the form of mobile microrobotic capsules or implanted stationary (body-fixed) units. In particular, capsule-based systems have attracted significant research interest recently, with a variety of applications, including endoscopy, microsurgery, drug delivery and biopsy. In such implantable sensor systems, one of the most challenging problems is the accurate localization and tracking of the microrobotic sensor unit (e.g., robotic capsule) inside the human body. This article presents a literature review of the existing localization and tracking techniques for robotic implantable sensor systems with their merits and limitations and possible solutions of the proposed localization methods. The article also provides a brief discussion on the connection and cooperation of such techniques with wearable biomedical sensor systems.

Small-bowel capsule endoscopy with panoramic view: results of the first multicenter, observational study (with videos)

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The first small-bowel video-capsule endoscopy (VCE) with 360° panoramic view has been developed recently. This new capsule has wire-free technology, 4 high-frame-rate cameras, and a long-lasting battery life. The aim of the present study was to assess the performance and safety profile of the 360° panoramic-view capsule in a large series of patients from a multicenter clinical practice setting.

METHODS

Consecutive patients undergoing a 360° panoramic-view capsule procedure in 7 European Institutions between January 2011 and November 2015 were included. Both technical (ie, technical failures, completion rate) and clinical (ie, indication, findings, retention rate) data were collected by means of a structured questionnaire. VCE findings were classified according to the likelihood of explaining the reason for referral: P0, low; P1, intermediate; P2, high.

RESULTS

Of the 172 patients (94 men; median age, 68 years; interquartile range, 53-75), 142 underwent VCE for obscure (32 overt, 110 occult) GI bleeding (OGIB), and 28 for suspected (17) or established (2) Crohn's disease (CD). Overall, 560 findings were detected; 252 were classified as P2. The overall diagnostic yield was 40.1%; 42.2% and 30.0% in patients with OGIB and CD, respectively. The rate of complete enteroscopy was 90.2%. All patients but one, who experienced capsule retention (1/172, 0.6%), excreted and retrieved the capsule. VCE failure occurred in 4 of 172 (2.3%) patients because of technical problems.

CONCLUSIONS

This multicenter study, conducted in the clinical practice setting and based on a large consecutive series of patients, showed that the diagnostic yield and safety profile of the 360° panoramic-view capsule are similar to those of forward-view VCEs.

An Innovative Wireless Endoscopic Capsule With Spherical Shape

This paper aims to contribute to the advancement of the Wireless Capsule Endoscopy (WCE) field for ColoRectal Cancer (CRC) screening, by developing all electronic circuits to build an innovative wireless endoscopic capsule with a spherical shape, conceived to reduce the friction during its locomotion and thus improving patient's acceptability. The proposed capsule embeds an image sensor with optics and Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs), a control unit with a telemetry module, an actuation system, a battery with a smart recharging circuit able to recharge in 20 minutes, a smart power-on circuit and a localization module. Everything is devised to fit in a small spherical shape with a diameter of 26 mm and a weight of 12.70 g. The authors present a description of the sub-modules involved in the capsule development, together with the firmware and hardware integration. In order to reduce the bandwidth for matching the specifications of the target commercial telemetry, the firmware interfacing of a custom encoder was performed, which is able to compress the incoming images with a negligible loss of information and occupying a number of Look Up-Tables (LUTs) less than 1780. As a preliminary work, a versatile Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGA) based demo-board system has been developed in order to test and optimize the functionalities and the performance of the single sub-modules and wireless vision chain system. This work allows to demonstrate the feasibility of a complex biomedical system, with severe constraints by highlighting the necessity to enhance the frame rate in the future.

Association Between Fecal Calprotectin Levels and Small-bowel Inflammation Score in Capsule Endoscopy: A Multicenter Retrospective Study

BACKGROUND

Accurate inflammation reporting in capsule endoscopy (CE) is important for diagnosis and monitoring of treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Fecal calprotectin (FC) is a highly specific biomarker of gut inflammation. Lewis score (LS) was developed to standardize quantification of inflammation in small-bowel (SB) CE images.

GOALS

Multicenter retrospective study aiming to investigate correlation between LS and FC in a large group of patients undergoing CE for suspected or known small-bowel IBD, and to develop a model for prediction of CE results (LS) based on FC levels.

STUDY

Five academic centers and a district general hospital offering CE in UK, Finland, Sweden, Canada, and Israel. In total, 333 patients were recruited. They had small-bowel CE and FC done within 3 months.

RESULTS

Overall, correlation between FC and LS was weak (r s: 0.232, P < 0.001). When two clinically significant FC thresholds (100 and 250 μg/g) were examined, the r s between FC and LS was 0.247 (weak) and 0.337 (moderate), respectively (P = 0.307). For clinically significant (LS ≥ 135) or negative (LS < 135) for SB inflammation, ROC curves gave an optimum cutoff point of FC 76 μg/g with sensitivity 0.59 and specificity 0.41.

LIMITATIONS

Retrospective design.

CONCLUSIONS

LS appears to show low correlation with FC as well as other serology markers of inflammation. FC does not appear to be a reliable biomarker for significant small-bowel inflammation. Nevertheless, FC level ≥ 76 μg/g may be associated with appreciable visual inflammation on small-bowel CE in patients with negative prior diagnostic workup.

A compact targeted drug delivery mechanism for a next generation wireless capsule endoscope

This paper reports a novel medication release and delivery mechanism as part of a next generation wireless capsule endoscope (WCE) for targeted drug delivery. This subsystem occupies a volume of only 17.9mm3 for the purpose of delivering a 1 ml payload to a target site of interest in the small intestinal tract. An in-depth analysis of the method employed to release and deliver the medication is described and a series of experiments is presented which validates the drug delivery system. The results show that a variable pitch conical compression spring manufactured from stainless steel can deliver 0.59 N when it is fully compressed and that this would be sufficient force to deliver the onboard medication.

Frontiers of robotic endoscopic capsules: a review

Digestive diseases are a major burden for society and healthcare systems, and with an aging population, the importance of their effective management will become critical. Healthcare systems worldwide already struggle to insure quality and affordability of healthcare delivery and this will be a significant challenge in the midterm future. Wireless capsule endoscopy (WCE), introduced in 2000 by Given Imaging Ltd., is an example of disruptive technology and represents an attractive alternative to traditional diagnostic techniques. WCE overcomes conventional endoscopy enabling inspection of the digestive system without discomfort or the need for sedation. Thus, it has the advantage of encouraging patients to undergo gastrointestinal (GI) tract examinations and of facilitating mass screening programmes. With the integration of further capabilities based on microrobotics, e.g. active locomotion and embedded therapeutic modules, WCE could become the key-technology for GI diagnosis and treatment. This review presents a research update on WCE and describes the state-of-the-art of current endoscopic devices with a focus on research-oriented robotic capsule endoscopes enabled by microsystem technologies. The article also presents a visionary perspective on WCE potential for screening, diagnostic and therapeutic endoscopic procedures.