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Lampe LF, Zarifyan M, Hameau S, Nickels L. Why is a flamingo named as pelican and asparagus as celery? Understanding the relationship between targets and errors in a speeded picture naming task. Cogn Neuropsychol 2024; 41:18-50. [PMID: 38349892 DOI: 10.1080/02643294.2024.2315822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2023] [Accepted: 01/10/2024] [Indexed: 02/15/2024]
Abstract
Speakers sometimes make word production errors, such as mistakenly saying pelican instead of flamingo. This study explored which properties of an error influence the likelihood of its selection over the target word. Analysing real-word errors in speeded picture naming, we investigated whether, relative to the target, naming errors were more typical representatives of the semantic category, were associated with more semantic features, and/or were semantically more closely related to the target than its near semantic neighbours were on average. Results indicated that naming errors tended to be more typical category representatives and possess more semantic features than the targets. Moreover, while not being the closest semantic neighbours, errors were largely near semantic neighbours of the targets. These findings suggest that typicality, number of semantic features, and semantic similarity govern activation levels in the production system, and we discuss possible mechanisms underlying these effects in the context of word production theories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonie F Lampe
- School of Psychological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
- Department of Linguistics, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Maria Zarifyan
- School of Psychological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
- European Master's of Clinical Linguistics (EMCL+), Universities of Groningen, Groningen (The Netherlands), Potsdam (Germany), and Eastern Finland (Finland)
| | - Solène Hameau
- School of Psychological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
- Psychological Sciences Research Institute, Catholic University of Louvain, Ottignies-Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Lyndsey Nickels
- School of Psychological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
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2
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Polito C, Conca F, Santi GC, Esposito V, Caminiti SP, Boccalini C, Berti V, Morinelli C, Mazzeo S, Marcone A, Iannaccone S, Bessi V, Sorbi S, Perani D, Cappa SF, Catricalà E. Comparing two picture naming tasks in primary progressive aphasia: Insights from behavioural and neural results. Cortex 2023; 166:1-18. [PMID: 37295234 DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2023.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2022] [Revised: 02/24/2023] [Accepted: 04/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Picture naming tests are widely used to evaluate language impairments in neurodegenerative diseases, especially in Primary Progressive Aphasia (PPA). The available tests differ for many factors affecting the performance, e.g. format of stimuli and their psycholinguistic properties. We aim to identify the most appropriate naming test to be used on PPA according to the clinical and research demands. We investigated the behavioural characteristics, i.e. proportion of correct responses and error type, and their neural correlates in two Italian naming tests, CaGi naming (CaGi) and naming subtest of the Screening for Aphasia in NeuroDegeneration battery (SAND), administered to 52 PPA patients who underwent an FDG-PET scan. We analysed the effectiveness of the tests in distinguishing PPA versus controls and among PPA variants, considering the psycholinguistic variables affecting performance. We explored the brain metabolic correlates of behavioural performance in the tests. SAND, differently from CaGi, has time limits for the response and its items are less frequent and acquired later. SAND and CaGi differed in terms of number of correct responses and error profile, suggesting a higher difficulty to name SAND items compared to CaGi. Semantic errors predominated in CaGi, while anomic and semantic errors were equally frequent in SAND. Both tests distinguished PPA from controls, but SAND outperformed CaGi in discriminating among PPA variants. FDG-PET imaging revealed a shared metabolic involvement of temporal areas associated with lexico-semantic processing, encompassing anterior fusiform, temporal pole, and extending to posterior fusiform in sv-PPA. Concluding, a picture naming test with response time limit and items which are less frequent and acquired later in life, as SAND, may be effective at highlighting subtle distinctions between PPA variants, improving the diagnosis. Conversely, a naming test without time limit for the response, as CaGi, may be useful for a better characterization of the nature of the naming impairment at the behavioural level, eliciting more naming errors than anomia, possibly helping in the development of rehabilitation protocols.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Gaia C Santi
- ICoN Cognitive Neuroscience Center, Institute for Advanced Studies, IUSS, Pavia, Italy
| | | | - Silvia P Caminiti
- Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, 20132, Milan, Italy; In Vivo Human Molecular and Structural Neuroimaging Unit, Division of Neuroscience, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, 20132, Milan, Italy; Nuclear Medicine Unit, San Raffaele Hospital, 20132, Milan, Italy
| | - Cecilia Boccalini
- Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, 20132, Milan, Italy; In Vivo Human Molecular and Structural Neuroimaging Unit, Division of Neuroscience, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, 20132, Milan, Italy
| | - Valentina Berti
- Nuclear Medicine, Department of Biomedical Experimental and Clinical Sciences "Mario Serio", University of Florence, Italy
| | - Carmen Morinelli
- SOD Neurologia 1, Dipartimento Neuromuscolo-Scheletrico e Degli Organi di Senso, Azienda Ospedaliera-Universitaria Careggi, Florence, Italy
| | - Salvatore Mazzeo
- IRCCS Fondazione Don Carlo Gnocchi, Florence, Italy; NEUROFARBA, Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Alessandra Marcone
- Department of Rehabilitation and Functional Recovery, San Raffaele Hospital, Milan, Italy
| | - Sandro Iannaccone
- Department of Rehabilitation and Functional Recovery, San Raffaele Hospital, Milan, Italy
| | - Valentina Bessi
- IRCCS Fondazione Don Carlo Gnocchi, Florence, Italy; SOD Neurologia 1, Dipartimento Neuromuscolo-Scheletrico e Degli Organi di Senso, Azienda Ospedaliera-Universitaria Careggi, Florence, Italy; NEUROFARBA, Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Sandro Sorbi
- IRCCS Fondazione Don Carlo Gnocchi, Florence, Italy; SOD Neurologia 1, Dipartimento Neuromuscolo-Scheletrico e Degli Organi di Senso, Azienda Ospedaliera-Universitaria Careggi, Florence, Italy; NEUROFARBA, Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Daniela Perani
- Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, 20132, Milan, Italy; In Vivo Human Molecular and Structural Neuroimaging Unit, Division of Neuroscience, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, 20132, Milan, Italy; Nuclear Medicine Unit, San Raffaele Hospital, 20132, Milan, Italy
| | - Stefano F Cappa
- IRCCS Mondino Foundation, Pavia, Italy; ICoN Cognitive Neuroscience Center, Institute for Advanced Studies, IUSS, Pavia, Italy.
| | - Eleonora Catricalà
- ICoN Cognitive Neuroscience Center, Institute for Advanced Studies, IUSS, Pavia, Italy
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Lampe LF, Hameau S, Nickels L. Are they really stronger? Comparing effects of semantic variables in speeded deadline and standard picture naming. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2023; 76:762-782. [PMID: 35570700 DOI: 10.1177/17470218221103356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Investigations of effects of semantic variables on picture naming have often been inconclusive, with some studies reporting significant and others non-significant effects. One potential explanation may relate to the specific naming tasks used: While most previous studies have used standard picture naming, others have used speeded naming that requires participants to prioritise naming speed over accuracy. Speeded naming has been suggested to cause enhanced effects of item-inherent word characteristics due to disruptions of cognitive control and resulting modulations of responsiveness to input. Consequently, this study investigated whether effects are stronger in speeded compared to standard picture naming, focusing on six feature-based semantic variables: number of semantic features, intercorrelational density, number of near semantic neighbours, semantic similarity, typicality, and distinctiveness. The results showed few differences in the variables' effects between the two naming tasks: In the naming latency analysis, the inhibitory effect of distinctiveness was stronger in the speeded naming task, while in the accuracy analysis the effect of number of semantic features was stronger in the standard naming task. These findings cannot, therefore, be exclusively accounted for by increased responsiveness to input in speeded naming and we discuss possible underlying mechanisms. We conclude that, while some differences in effects of semantic variables between previous studies may have been caused by the specific naming task used, differences between studies more likely depend on statistical power and control of other influential variables in the experiment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonie F Lampe
- School of Psychological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- International Doctorate for Experimental Approaches to Language and Brain (IDEALAB), Universities of Groningen (The Netherlands), Potsdam (Germany), Newcastle (UK), and Macquarie University (Australia)
| | - Solène Hameau
- School of Psychological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Department of Linguistics, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Lyndsey Nickels
- School of Psychological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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Nickels L, Lampe LF, Mason C, Hameau S. Investigating the influence of semantic factors on word retrieval: Reservations, results and recommendations. Cogn Neuropsychol 2022; 39:113-154. [PMID: 35972430 DOI: 10.1080/02643294.2022.2109958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
There is consensus that word retrieval starts with activation of semantic representations. However, in adults without language impairment, relatively little attention has been paid to the effects of the semantic attributes of to-be-retrieved words. This paper, therefore, addresses the question of which item-inherent semantic factors influence word retrieval. Specifically, it reviews the literature on a selection of these factors: imageability, concreteness, number of semantic features, typicality, intercorrelational density, featural distinctiveness, concept distinctiveness, animacy, semantic neighbourhood density, semantic similarity, operativity, valence, and arousal. It highlights several methodological challenges in this field, and has a focus on the insights from studies with people with aphasia where the effects of these variables are more prevalent. The paper concludes that further research simultaneously examining the effects of different semantic factors that are likely to affect lexical co-activation, and the interaction of these variables, would be fruitful, as would suitably scaled computational modelling of these effects in unimpaired language processing and in language impairment. Such research would enable the refinement of theories of semantic processing and word production, and potentially have implications for diagnosis and treatment of semantic and lexical impairments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lyndsey Nickels
- School of Psychological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia.,Macquarie Centre for Reading, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
| | - Leonie F Lampe
- School of Psychological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia.,Department of Linguistics, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Catherine Mason
- School of Psychological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia.,Macquarie Centre for Reading, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
| | - Solène Hameau
- School of Psychological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia.,Macquarie Centre for Reading, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
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5
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The effect of time pressure and semantic relatedness in spoken word production: A topographic ERP study. Behav Brain Res 2020; 387:112587. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2020.112587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2019] [Revised: 02/11/2020] [Accepted: 03/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Gerlach C. Normal and abnormal category-effects in visual object recognition: A legacy of Glyn W. Humphreys. VISUAL COGNITION 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/13506285.2016.1258022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christian Gerlach
- Department of Psychology, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
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Revisiting Rossion and Pourtois with new ratings for automated complexity, familiarity, beauty, and encounter. Behav Res Methods 2016; 49:1484-1493. [PMID: 27699592 PMCID: PMC5541110 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-016-0808-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Differences between norm ratings collected when participants are asked to consider more than one picture characteristic are contrasted with the traditional methodological approaches of collecting ratings separately for image constructs. We present data that suggest that reporting normative data, based on methodological procedures that ask participants to consider multiple image constructs simultaneously, could potentially confounded norm data. We provide data for two new image constructs, beauty and the extent to which participants encountered the stimuli in their everyday lives. Analysis of this data suggests that familiarity and encounter are tapping different image constructs. The extent to which an observer encounters an object predicts human judgments of visual complexity. Encountering an image was also found to be an important predictor of beauty, but familiarity with that image was not. Taken together, these results suggest that continuing to collect complexity measures from human judgments is a pointless exercise. Automated measures are more reliable and valid measures, which are demonstrated here as predicting human preferences.
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Lloyd-Jones TJ, Nakabayashi K. Long-term repetition priming and semantic interference in a lexical-semantic matching task: tapping the links between object names and colors. Front Psychol 2014; 5:644. [PMID: 25009522 PMCID: PMC4068293 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2014] [Accepted: 06/06/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Using a novel paradigm to engage the long-term mappings between object names and the prototypical colors for objects, we investigated the retrieval of object-color knowledge as indexed by long-term priming (the benefit in performance from a prior encounter with the same or a similar stimulus); a process about which little is known. We examined priming from object naming on a lexical-semantic matching task. In the matching task participants encountered a visually presented object name (Experiment 1) or object shape (Experiment 2) paired with either a color patch or color name. The pairings could either match whereby both were consistent with a familiar object (e.g., strawberry and red) or mismatch (strawberry and blue). We used the matching task to probe knowledge about familiar objects and their colors pre-activated during object naming. In particular, we examined whether the retrieval of object-color information was modality-specific and whether this influenced priming. Priming varied with the nature of the retrieval process: object-color priming arose for object names but not object shapes and beneficial effects of priming were observed for color patches whereas inhibitory priming arose with color names. These findings have implications for understanding how object knowledge is retrieved from memory and modified by learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toby J. Lloyd-Jones
- Wales Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, Swansea UniversitySwansea, UK
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9
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Gerlach C, Marques JF. Visual complexity exerts opposing effects on object categorization and identification. VISUAL COGNITION 2014. [DOI: 10.1080/13506285.2014.915908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Marques JF, Raposo A, Almeida J. Structural processing and category-specific deficits. Cortex 2013; 49:266-75. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2011.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2011] [Revised: 09/16/2011] [Accepted: 10/18/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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11
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The time course of activation of object shape and shape+colour representations during memory retrieval. PLoS One 2012; 7:e48550. [PMID: 23155393 PMCID: PMC3498244 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0048550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2012] [Accepted: 09/26/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Little is known about the timing of activating memory for objects and their associated perceptual properties, such as colour, and yet this is important for theories of human cognition. We investigated the time course associated with early cognitive processes related to the activation of object shape and object shape+colour representations respectively, during memory retrieval as assessed by repetition priming in an event-related potential (ERP) study. The main findings were as follows: (1) we identified a unique early modulation of mean ERP amplitude during the N1 that was associated with the activation of object shape independently of colour; (2) we also found a subsequent early P2 modulation of mean amplitude over the same electrode clusters associated with the activation of object shape+colour representations; (3) these findings were apparent across both familiar (i.e., correctly coloured – yellow banana) and novel (i.e., incorrectly coloured - blue strawberry) objects; and (4) neither of the modulations of mean ERP amplitude were evident during the P3. Together the findings delineate the timing of object shape and colour memory systems and support the notion that perceptual representations of object shape mediate the retrieval of temporary shape+colour representations for familiar and novel objects.
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The role of imagery-related properties in picture naming: A newly standardized set of 360 pictures for Japanese. Behav Res Methods 2012; 44:934-45. [DOI: 10.3758/s13428-011-0176-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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14
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Marques JF, Raposo A. Structural dimensions of object pictures: Organization and relation to object decision and naming. VISUAL COGNITION 2011. [DOI: 10.1080/13506285.2011.575414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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15
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Abstract
We assessed the importance of outline contour and individual features in mediating the recognition of animals by examining response times and eye movements in an animal-object decision task (i.e., deciding whether or not an object was an animal that may be encountered in real life). There were shorter latencies for animals as compared with nonanimals and performance was similar for shaded line drawings and silhouettes, suggesting that important information for recognition lies in the outline contour. The most salient information in the outline contour was around the head, followed by the lower torso and leg regions. We also observed effects of object orientation and argue that the usefulness of the head and lower torso/leg regions is consistent with a role for the object axis in recognition.
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The role of visual form in lexical access: Evidence from Chinese classifier production. Cognition 2010; 116:101-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2010.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2009] [Revised: 04/08/2010] [Accepted: 04/09/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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17
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Griffin ZM. Retrieving Personal Names, Referring Expressions, and Terms of Address. PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING AND MOTIVATION 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/s0079-7421(10)53009-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Dalemans R, Wade DT, van den Heuvel WJA, de Witte LP. Facilitating the participation of people with aphasia in research: a description of strategies. Clin Rehabil 2009; 23:948-59. [DOI: 10.1177/0269215509337197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Background: People with aphasia are often excluded from research because of their communication impairments, especially when an investigation into the communication impairment is not the primary goal. In our research concerning social participation of people with aphasia, we wanted to include people with mild, moderate as well as severe aphasia. Aim: To suggest strategies and techniques for research in people with aphasia based upon experiences in conducting research in this group of people. Methods: We conducted a qualitative study and a quantitative study in people with aphasia concerning their social participation. In these studies different strategies were developed based upon the literature, conversations with people with aphasia and speech and language therapists, to facilitate the inclusion of people with aphasia, even those with severe communication problems. Several strategies were evaluated. The strategies used and our experiences are outlined in this report. Main contribution: It is possible to conduct research in this group. Several strategies were helpful to make this mission possible: the use of pre-structured diaries, the use of in-depth interviews with attention to non-verbal communication, the use of existing measurements, adjusted for people with aphasia by: using pictograms, placing one question per page, bolding the key concepts in the question, using large font, visualizing the answering possibilities in words and in pictures, reducing the question length, and excluding negatives in the question. Conclusion: Research in people with aphasia is possible when using strategies adjusted to the communicative impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth Dalemans
- Zuyd University, Health and Technique, Centre of Expertise on Autonomy and Participation, Heerlen and Care and Public Health Research Institute, Heerlen, The Netherlands,
| | | | | | - Luc P de Witte
- Zuyd University, Centre of Expertise on Technology and Care, Heerlen, The Netherlands
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What’s in a name? The role of graphics, functions, and their interrelationships in icon identification. Behav Res Methods 2009; 41:325-36. [DOI: 10.3758/brm.41.2.325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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20
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A standardized set of 260 pictures for Modern Greek: Norms for name agreement, age of acquisition, and visual complexity. Behav Res Methods 2009; 41:584-9. [DOI: 10.3758/brm.41.2.584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Gerlach C. Category-specificity in visual object recognition. Cognition 2009; 111:281-301. [PMID: 19324331 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2009.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2008] [Revised: 12/18/2008] [Accepted: 02/01/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Are all categories of objects recognized in the same manner visually? Evidence from neuropsychology suggests they are not: some brain damaged patients are more impaired in recognizing natural objects than artefacts whereas others show the opposite impairment. Category-effects have also been demonstrated in neurologically intact subjects, but the findings are contradictory and there is no agreement as to why category-effects arise. This article presents a pre-semantic account of category-effects (PACE) in visual object recognition. PACE assumes two processing stages: shape configuration (the binding of shape elements into elaborate shape descriptions) and selection (among competing representations in visual long-term memory), which are held to be differentially affected by the structural similarity between objects. Drawing on evidence from clinical studies, experimental studies with neurologically intact subjects and functional imaging studies, it is argued that PACE can account for category-effects at both behavioural and neural levels in patients and neurologically intact subjects. The theory also accounts for the way in which category-effects are affected by different task parameters (the degree of perceptual differentiation called for), stimulus characteristics (whether stimuli are presented as silhouettes, full line-drawings, or fragmented forms), stimulus presentation (stimulus exposure duration and position) as well as interactions between these parameters.
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