Physical closeness and negative feelings

The role of oxytocin in implicit personal space regulation: An fMRI study

Personal space, defined as the distance individuals choose to maintain between themselves and others, is an indicator of affiliation and closeness. Most paradigms that measure personal space preferences involve explicit choice and therefore fail to examine the implicit aspects of such preferences. In the current study, we sought to investigate an implicit form of interpersonal space that is more closely related to real-life situations involving affiliation. We studied the effects of oxytocin (OT) on neural networks that involve affiliation and tested the impact on personal space preferences. In a double-blind placebo-controlled study, we asked participants to choose between two rooms that differed only in the distances between two stimuli. The stimuli were either social stimuli (two chairs) or non-social stimuli (table and plant). The behavioral results showed that OT caused participants to choose a closer space in social blocks but did not affect their choices in non-social blocks. Imaging results revealed an interaction between stimulus and treatment (OT/PL) in the dorsal striatum, an area that is related to approach motivation and is part of the reward circuitry. Specifically, OT increased activity in the dorsal striatum in the social blocks and decreased this activity in the non-social blocks. The results of the study strengthen the social salience theory regarding OT, indicating that OT does not uniformly affect all social responses and that context has a determining impact on our behavior.

Interpersonal relationships in isolation and confinement: long-term bed rest in head-down tilt position

The long-term bed-rest was organized by ESA and CNES, in order to simulate the physiological effects of weightlessness: eight volunteers had to stay 42 days in bed, in a head down tilt position (-6 degrees). There were two subjects in a room, they could not be alone and it was difficult for them to have their own personal space and intimacy. In these circumstances, as in outer space, interpersonal relationships were of prime importance. This situation enabled us, through systematic observation, to analyze the evolution of the relational behavior in dyads, and to quote some social indicators of adaptation. Results show significant withdrawal, and the time spent alone was marked by the emergence, during the experiment, of specific preferential activities. Behavioral contagion was observed in each dyad (people engaged in the same activities at the same time), except in the one case of abandon. Moreover, the highest rates of inactivity and withdrawal were noted in this case. Verbal indicators were useful to comment these results and showed that, for all the dyads, one of the two subjects always played a regulating role by expressing a very positive perception of the situation. These results emphasize the importance of psycho-sociological factors in isolation and confinement. Thus, it appears that different modalities of interpersonal relationships, and not only verbal interactions, play a significant role in adaptation to stress situations.

Personal space and density as factors in task performance and feeling of crowding

The study was an investigation of the effects of density and personal space on simple and complex task performance and on feelings of crowding on 60 female Hindu students in India. A 2 x 2 design was used. Density was manipulated by varying the number of subjects in a fixed room space (social density), and the stop-distance technique was used to measure personal space. Results revealed that complex task performance was adversely affected by a high-density condition and by the personal space of the subjects, leading to a significant interaction effect of the two variables, but no significant main or interaction effect was found for the simple task performance. The subjects with "far" personal space under the high-density condition evaluated the environment of the experimental room as most crowded, more than any other subject did.

Personal space, crowding, and the interference model of test anxiety

A university examination provided the setting for testing a hypothesis from the interference model of test anxiety. Since the model assumes that the test situation interferes with task-relevant behavior, two environmentally-relevant test factors were manipulated, the number of students present in the examination room and the positions of proctors. No effect for either environmental factor alone was noted; however, a significant interaction was found. Students taking the examination in the crowded test room and positioned a medium distance from the proctor reported higher anxiety levels and scored lower on the test than did those students in the other treatment conditions. Results are discussed in light of the literature on spatial constraint.

The development of the mood-inhibiting effects of crowding during adolescence

Prior research on the effects of crowding on human behavior has concentrated on aggression and negative affect. The present study centered on the possible inhibiting effects of crowding on the development of positive mood states. Males (n = 72) and females (n = 72) representing early, middle, and late adolescence were examined under conditions of high and low spatial density. Subjects were provided with positive mood-inducing stimuli or neutral stimuli during density conditions. Crowding produced neither positive nor negative moods on groups beyond young adolescence. Effectiveness of positive mood producing stimuli was inhibited for late adolescent males and females.

Positive Mood-Inhibiting Potential of Human Crowding

Previous research on the effects of crowding on human behavior has concentrated on aggression and other negative outcomes. This study focused on the possible inhibiting effect of crowding on the development of positive mood states. 48 college men and 48 women were examined under conditions of high and low spatial density. Subjects were provided with positive mood-producing stimuli or neutral stimuli during crowding conditions. Neither positive nor negative moods were directly produced by crowding. Influence of crowding centered around inhibiting the effectiveness of positive mood-producing stimuli. Outcomes occurred for both men and women subjects.

THE EFFECTS OF HIGH SPATIAL DENSITY ON HUMOR APPRECIATION: AGE AND SEX DIFFERENCES

The social facilitation of humor appreciation is a widely held belief but narrowly researched concept. This study was designed to show the involvement of spatial density as well as social density in the appreciation of humor. Male and female adolescents representing ages 11 to 18 years participated under conditions of high and low spatial density. High spatial density was found to significantly diminish appreciation of three humor types. Significant sex and age differences in reactivity to spatial density were found. Results expand current knowledge of the effects of density on the appreciation of humor and suggest the capability of spatial density to inhibit positive affect.