1
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Beitner J, Helbing J, David EJ, Võ MLH. Using a flashlight-contingent window paradigm to investigate visual search and object memory in virtual reality and on computer screens. Sci Rep 2024; 14:8596. [PMID: 38615047 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-58941-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2023] [Accepted: 04/04/2024] [Indexed: 04/15/2024] Open
Abstract
A popular technique to modulate visual input during search is to use gaze-contingent windows. However, these are often rather discomforting, providing the impression of visual impairment. To counteract this, we asked participants in this study to search through illuminated as well as dark three-dimensional scenes using a more naturalistic flashlight with which they could illuminate the rooms. In a surprise incidental memory task, we tested the identities and locations of objects encountered during search. Importantly, we tested this study design in both immersive virtual reality (VR; Experiment 1) and on a desktop-computer screen (Experiment 2). As hypothesized, searching with a flashlight increased search difficulty and memory usage during search. We found a memory benefit for identities of distractors in the flashlight condition in VR but not in the computer screen experiment. Surprisingly, location memory was comparable across search conditions despite the enormous difference in visual input. Subtle differences across experiments only appeared in VR after accounting for previous recognition performance, hinting at a benefit of flashlight search in VR. Our findings highlight that removing visual information does not necessarily impair location memory, and that screen experiments using virtual environments can elicit the same major effects as VR setups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Beitner
- Department of Psychology, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
| | - Jason Helbing
- Department of Psychology, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Erwan Joël David
- Department of Psychology, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- LIUM, Le Mans Université, Le Mans, France
| | - Melissa Lê-Hoa Võ
- Department of Psychology, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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2
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Son G, Walther DB, Mack ML. Brief category learning distorts perceptual space for complex scenes. Psychon Bull Rev 2024:10.3758/s13423-024-02484-6. [PMID: 38438711 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-024-02484-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 03/06/2024]
Abstract
The formation of categories is known to distort perceptual space: representations are pushed away from category boundaries and pulled toward categorical prototypes. This phenomenon has been studied with artificially constructed objects, whose feature dimensions are easily defined and manipulated. How such category-induced perceptual distortions arise for complex, real-world scenes, however, remains largely unknown due to the technical challenge of measuring and controlling scene features. We address this question by generating realistic scene images from a high-dimensional continuous space using generative adversarial networks and using the images as stimuli in a novel learning task. Participants learned to categorize the scene images along arbitrary category boundaries and later reconstructed the same scenes from memory. Systematic biases in reconstruction errors closely tracked each participant's subjective category boundaries. These findings suggest that the perception of global scene properties is warped to align with a newly learned category structure after only a brief learning experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaeun Son
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
| | - Dirk B Walther
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Michael L Mack
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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3
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Nachtnebel SJ, Cambronero-Delgadillo AJ, Helmers L, Ischebeck A, Höfler M. The impact of different distractions on outdoor visual search and object memory. Sci Rep 2023; 13:16700. [PMID: 37794077 PMCID: PMC10551016 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-43679-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 09/27/2023] [Indexed: 10/06/2023] Open
Abstract
We investigated whether and how different types of search distractions affect visual search behavior and target memory while participants searched in a real-world environment. They searched either undistracted (control condition), listened to a podcast (auditory distraction), counted down aloud at intervals of three while searching (executive working memory load), or were forced to stop the search on half of the trials (time pressure). In line with findings from laboratory settings, participants searched longer but made fewer errors when the target was absent than when it was present, regardless of distraction condition. Furthermore, compared to the auditory distraction condition, the executive working memory load led to higher error rates (but not longer search times). In a surprise memory test after the end of the search tasks, recognition was better for previously present targets than for absent targets. Again, this was regardless of the previous distraction condition, although significantly fewer targets were remembered by the participants in the executive working memory load condition than by those in the control condition. The findings suggest that executive working memory load, but likely not auditory distraction and time pressure affected visual search performance and target memory in a real-world environment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Linda Helmers
- Department of Psychology, University of Graz, Universitätsplatz 2/III, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Anja Ischebeck
- Department of Psychology, University of Graz, Universitätsplatz 2/III, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Margit Höfler
- Department of Psychology, University of Graz, Universitätsplatz 2/III, 8010, Graz, Austria
- Department for Dementia Research, University for Continuing Education Krems, Dr.-Karl-Dorrek-Straße 30, 3500, Krems, Austria
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4
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Wiesmann SL, Võ MLH. Disentangling diagnostic object properties for human scene categorization. Sci Rep 2023; 13:5912. [PMID: 37041222 PMCID: PMC10090043 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-32385-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 04/13/2023] Open
Abstract
It usually only takes a single glance to categorize our environment into different scene categories (e.g. a kitchen or a highway). Object information has been suggested to play a crucial role in this process, and some proposals even claim that the recognition of a single object can be sufficient to categorize the scene around it. Here, we tested this claim in four behavioural experiments by having participants categorize real-world scene photographs that were reduced to a single, cut-out object. We show that single objects can indeed be sufficient for correct scene categorization and that scene category information can be extracted within 50 ms of object presentation. Furthermore, we identified object frequency and specificity for the target scene category as the most important object properties for human scene categorization. Interestingly, despite the statistical definition of specificity and frequency, human ratings of these properties were better predictors of scene categorization behaviour than more objective statistics derived from databases of labelled real-world images. Taken together, our findings support a central role of object information during human scene categorization, showing that single objects can be indicative of a scene category if they are assumed to frequently and exclusively occur in a certain environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandro L Wiesmann
- Department of Psychology, Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität, Theodor-W.-Adorno-Platz 6, 60323, Frankfurt Am Main, Germany.
| | - Melissa L-H Võ
- Department of Psychology, Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität, Theodor-W.-Adorno-Platz 6, 60323, Frankfurt Am Main, Germany
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5
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Hunt R, Blackmore T, Mills C, Dicks M. Evaluating the integration of eye-tracking and motion capture technologies: Quantifying the accuracy and precision of gaze measures. Iperception 2022; 13:20416695221116652. [PMID: 36186610 PMCID: PMC9516427 DOI: 10.1177/20416695221116652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2022] [Accepted: 07/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Integrating mobile eye tracking and optoelectronic motion capture enables point of gaze
to be expressed within the laboratory co-ordinate system and presents a method not
commonly applied during research examining dynamic behaviors, such as locomotion. This
paper examines the quality of gaze data collected through the integration. Based on
research suggesting increased viewing distances are associated with reduced data quality;
the accuracy and precision of gaze data as participants (N = 11) viewed
floor-based targets at distances of 1–6 m was investigated. A mean accuracy of
2.55 ± 1.12° was identified, however, accuracy and precision measures (relative to
targets) were significantly (p < .05) reduced at greater viewing
distances. We then consider if signal processing techniques may improve accuracy and
precision, and overcome issues associated with missing data. A 4th-order Butterworth
lowpass filter with cut-off frequencies determined via autocorrelation did not
significantly improve data quality, however, interpolation via Quintic spline was
sufficient to overcome gaps of up to 0.1 s. We conclude the integration of gaze and motion
capture presents a viable methodology in the study of human behavior and presents
advantages for data collection, treatment, and analysis. We provide considerations for the
collection, analysis, and treatment of gaze data that may help inform future
methodological decisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rhys Hunt
- School of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
| | - Tim Blackmore
- School of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
| | - Chris Mills
- School of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
| | - Matt Dicks
- School of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
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6
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David EJ, Beitner J, Võ MLH. The importance of peripheral vision when searching 3D real-world scenes: A gaze-contingent study in virtual reality. J Vis 2021; 21:3. [PMID: 34251433 PMCID: PMC8287039 DOI: 10.1167/jov.21.7.3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Visual search in natural scenes is a complex task relying on peripheral vision to detect potential targets and central vision to verify them. The segregation of the visual fields has been particularly established by on-screen experiments. We conducted a gaze-contingent experiment in virtual reality in order to test how the perceived roles of central and peripheral visions translated to more natural settings. The use of everyday scenes in virtual reality allowed us to study visual attention by implementing a fairly ecological protocol that cannot be implemented in the real world. Central or peripheral vision was masked during visual search, with target objects selected according to scene semantic rules. Analyzing the resulting search behavior, we found that target objects that were not spatially constrained to a probable location within the scene impacted search measures negatively. Our results diverge from on-screen studies in that search performances were only slightly affected by central vision loss. In particular, a central mask did not impact verification times when the target was grammatically constrained to an anchor object. Our findings demonstrates that the role of central vision (up to 6 degrees of eccentricities) in identifying objects in natural scenes seems to be minor, while the role of peripheral preprocessing of targets in immersive real-world searches may have been underestimated by on-screen experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erwan Joël David
- Department of Psychology, Goethe-Universität, Frankfurt, Germany.,
| | - Julia Beitner
- Department of Psychology, Goethe-Universität, Frankfurt, Germany.,
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7
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Kristjánsson Á, Draschkow D. Keeping it real: Looking beyond capacity limits in visual cognition. Atten Percept Psychophys 2021; 83:1375-1390. [PMID: 33791942 PMCID: PMC8084831 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-021-02256-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Research within visual cognition has made tremendous strides in uncovering the basic operating characteristics of the visual system by reducing the complexity of natural vision to artificial but well-controlled experimental tasks and stimuli. This reductionist approach has for example been used to assess the basic limitations of visual attention, visual working memory (VWM) capacity, and the fidelity of visual long-term memory (VLTM). The assessment of these limits is usually made in a pure sense, irrespective of goals, actions, and priors. While it is important to map out the bottlenecks our visual system faces, we focus here on selected examples of how such limitations can be overcome. Recent findings suggest that during more natural tasks, capacity may be higher than reductionist research suggests and that separable systems subserve different actions, such as reaching and looking, which might provide important insights about how pure attentional or memory limitations could be circumvented. We also review evidence suggesting that the closer we get to naturalistic behavior, the more we encounter implicit learning mechanisms that operate "for free" and "on the fly." These mechanisms provide a surprisingly rich visual experience, which can support capacity-limited systems. We speculate whether natural tasks may yield different estimates of the limitations of VWM, VLTM, and attention, and propose that capacity measurements should also pass the real-world test within naturalistic frameworks. Our review highlights various approaches for this and suggests that our understanding of visual cognition will benefit from incorporating the complexities of real-world cognition in experimental approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Árni Kristjánsson
- School of Health Sciences, University of Iceland, Reykjavík, Iceland.
- School of Psychology, National Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia.
| | - Dejan Draschkow
- Oxford Centre for Human Brain Activity, Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
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8
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Võ MLH. The meaning and structure of scenes. Vision Res 2021; 181:10-20. [PMID: 33429218 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2020.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2019] [Revised: 10/31/2020] [Accepted: 11/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
We live in a rich, three dimensional world with complex arrangements of meaningful objects. For decades, however, theories of visual attention and perception have been based on findings generated from lines and color patches. While these theories have been indispensable for our field, the time has come to move on from this rather impoverished view of the world and (at least try to) get closer to the real thing. After all, our visual environment consists of objects that we not only look at, but constantly interact with. Having incorporated the meaning and structure of scenes, i.e. its "grammar", then allows us to easily understand objects and scenes we have never encountered before. Studying this grammar provides us with the fascinating opportunity to gain new insights into the complex workings of attention, perception, and cognition. In this review, I will discuss how the meaning and the complex, yet predictive structure of real-world scenes influence attention allocation, search, and object identification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Le-Hoa Võ
- Department of Psychology, Johann Wolfgang-Goethe-Universität, Frankfurt, Germany. https://www.scenegrammarlab.com/
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9
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Beitner J, Helbing J, Draschkow D, Võ MLH. Get Your Guidance Going: Investigating the Activation of Spatial Priors for Efficient Search in Virtual Reality. Brain Sci 2021; 11:44. [PMID: 33406655 PMCID: PMC7823740 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci11010044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2020] [Revised: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Repeated search studies are a hallmark in the investigation of the interplay between memory and attention. Due to a usually employed averaging, a substantial decrease in response times occurring between the first and second search through the same search environment is rarely discussed. This search initiation effect is often the most dramatic decrease in search times in a series of sequential searches. The nature of this initial lack of search efficiency has thus far remained unexplored. We tested the hypothesis that the activation of spatial priors leads to this search efficiency profile. Before searching repeatedly through scenes in VR, participants either (1) previewed the scene, (2) saw an interrupted preview, or (3) started searching immediately. The search initiation effect was present in the latter condition but in neither of the preview conditions. Eye movement metrics revealed that the locus of this effect lies in search guidance instead of search initiation or decision time, and was beyond effects of object learning or incidental memory. Our study suggests that upon visual processing of an environment, a process of activating spatial priors to enable orientation is initiated, which takes a toll on search time at first, but once activated it can be used to guide subsequent searches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Beitner
- Scene Grammar Lab, Institute of Psychology, Goethe University, 60323 Frankfurt am Main, Germany; (J.H.); (M.L.-H.V.)
| | - Jason Helbing
- Scene Grammar Lab, Institute of Psychology, Goethe University, 60323 Frankfurt am Main, Germany; (J.H.); (M.L.-H.V.)
| | - Dejan Draschkow
- Brain and Cognition Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7JX, UK;
| | - Melissa L.-H. Võ
- Scene Grammar Lab, Institute of Psychology, Goethe University, 60323 Frankfurt am Main, Germany; (J.H.); (M.L.-H.V.)
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10
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When Natural Behavior Engages Working Memory. Curr Biol 2020; 31:869-874.e5. [PMID: 33278355 PMCID: PMC7902904 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2020.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2020] [Revised: 10/12/2020] [Accepted: 11/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Working memory (WM) enables temporary storage and manipulation of information,1 supporting tasks that require bridging between perception and subsequent behavior. Its properties, such as its capacity, have been thoroughly investigated in highly controlled laboratory tasks.1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 Much less is known about the utilization and properties of WM in natural behavior,9, 10, 11 when reliance on WM emerges as a natural consequence of interactions with the environment. We measured the trade-off between reliance on WM and gathering information externally during immersive behavior in an adapted object-copying task.12 By manipulating the locomotive demands required for task completion, we could investigate whether and how WM utilization changed as gathering information from the environment became more effortful. Reliance on WM was lower than WM capacity measures in typical laboratory tasks. A clear trade-off also occurred. As sampling information from the environment required increasing locomotion and time investment, participants relied more on their WM representations. This reliance on WM increased in a shallow and linear fashion and was associated with longer encoding durations. Participants’ avoidance of WM usage showcases a fundamental dependence on external information during ecological behavior, even if the potentially storable information is well within the capacity of the cognitive system. These foundational findings highlight the importance of using immersive tasks to understand how cognitive processes unfold within natural behavior. Our novel VR approach effectively combines the ecological validity, experimental rigor, and sensitive measures required to investigate the interplay between memory and perception in immersive behavior. Video Abstract
Gaze provides a measure of working-memory (WM) usage during natural behavior Natural reliance on WM is low even when searching for objects externally is effortful WM utilization increases linearly as searching for objects requires more locomotion The trade-off between using WM versus external sampling affects performance
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11
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Kristjánsson T, Draschkow D, Pálsson Á, Haraldsson D, Jónsson PÖ, Kristjánsson Á. Moving foraging into three dimensions: Feature- versus conjunction-based foraging in virtual reality. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2020; 75:313-327. [PMID: 32519926 DOI: 10.1177/1747021820937020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Visual attention evolved in a three-dimensional (3D) world, yet studies on human attention in three dimensions are sparse. Here we present findings from a human foraging study in immersive 3D virtual reality. We used a foraging task introduced in Kristjánsson et al. to examine how well their findings generalise to more naturalistic settings. The second goal was to examine what effect the motion of targets and distractors has on inter-target times (ITTs), run patterns, and foraging organisation. Observers foraged for 50 targets among 50 distractors in four different conditions. Targets were distinguished from distractors by either a single feature (feature foraging) or a conjunction of features (conjunction foraging). Furthermore, those conditions were performed both with static and moving targets and distractors. Our results replicate previous foraging studies in many aspects, with constant ITTs during a "cruise-phase" within foraging trials and response time peaks at the end of foraging trials. Some key differences emerged, however, such as more frequent switches between target types during conjunction foraging than previously seen and a lack of clear mid-peaks during conjunction foraging, possibly reflecting that differences between feature and conjunction processing are smaller within 3D environments. Observers initiated their foraging in the bottom part of the visual field and motion did not have much of an effect on selection times between different targets (ITTs) or run behaviour patterns except for the end-peaks. Our results cast new light upon visual attention in 3D environments and highlight how 3D virtual reality studies can provide important extensions to two-dimensional studies of visual attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tómas Kristjánsson
- Icelandic Vision Laboratory, School of Health Sciences, University of Iceland, Reykjavík, Iceland
| | - Dejan Draschkow
- Department of Psychiatry, Oxford Centre for Human Brain Activity, Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Ágúst Pálsson
- Icelandic Vision Laboratory, School of Health Sciences, University of Iceland, Reykjavík, Iceland
| | - Davíð Haraldsson
- Icelandic Vision Laboratory, School of Health Sciences, University of Iceland, Reykjavík, Iceland
| | - Pétur Örn Jónsson
- Icelandic Vision Laboratory, School of Health Sciences, University of Iceland, Reykjavík, Iceland
| | - Árni Kristjánsson
- Icelandic Vision Laboratory, School of Health Sciences, University of Iceland, Reykjavík, Iceland.,School of Psychology, National Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russian Federation
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12
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Does active learning benefit spatial memory during navigation with restricted peripheral field? Atten Percept Psychophys 2020; 82:3033-3047. [PMID: 32346822 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-020-02038-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Spatial learning of real-world environments is impaired with severely restricted peripheral field of view (FOV). In prior research, the effects of restricted FOV on spatial learning have been studied using passive learning paradigms - learners walk along pre-defined paths and are told the location of targets to be remembered. Our research has shown that mobility demands and environmental complexity may contribute to impaired spatial learning with restricted FOV through attentional mechanisms. Here, we examine the role of active navigation, both in locomotion and in target search. First, we compared effects of active versus passive locomotion (walking with a physical guide versus being pushed in a wheelchair) on a task of pointing to remembered targets in participants with simulated 10° FOV. We found similar performance between active and passive locomotion conditions in both simpler (Experiment 1) and more complex (Experiment 2) spatial learning tasks. Experiment 3 required active search for named targets to remember while navigating, using both a mild and a severe FOV restriction. We observed no difference in pointing accuracy between the two FOV restrictions but an increase in attentional demands with severely restricted FOV. Experiment 4 compared active and passive search with severe FOV restriction, within subjects. We found no difference in pointing accuracy, but observed an increase in cognitive load in active versus passive search. Taken together, in the context of navigating with restricted FOV, neither locomotion method nor level of active search affected spatial learning. However, the greater cognitive demands could have counteracted the potential advantage of the active learning conditions.
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13
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Helbing J, Draschkow D, Võ MLH. Search superiority: Goal-directed attentional allocation creates more reliable incidental identity and location memory than explicit encoding in naturalistic virtual environments. Cognition 2020; 196:104147. [PMID: 32004760 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2019.104147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2019] [Revised: 11/19/2019] [Accepted: 11/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
We use representations and expectations formed during life-long learning to support attentional allocation and perception. In comparison to traditional laboratory investigations, real-world memory formation is usually achieved without explicit instruction and on-the-fly as a by-product of natural interactions with our environment. Understanding this process and the quality of naturally formed representations is critical to understanding how memory is used to guide attention and perception. Utilizing immersive, navigable, and realistic virtual environments, we investigated incidentally generated memory representations by comparing them to memories for items which were explicitly memorized. Participants either searched for objects embedded in realistic indoor environments or explicitly memorized them for follow-up identity and location memory tests. We show for the first time that memory for the identity of naturalistic objects and their location in 3D space is higher after incidental encoding compared to explicit memorization, even though the subsequent memory tests came as a surprise to participants. Relating gaze behavior to memory performance revealed that encoding time was more predictive of subsequent memory when participants explicitly memorized an item, compared to incidentally encoding it. Our results suggest that the active nature of guiding attentional allocation during proactive behavior allows for behaviorally optimal formation and utilization of representations. This highlights the importance of investigating cognition under ecologically valid conditions and shows that understanding the most natural processes for encoding and maintaining information is critical for understanding adaptive behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason Helbing
- Scene Grammar Lab, Department of Psychology, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Dejan Draschkow
- Scene Grammar Lab, Department of Psychology, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany; Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, England, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
| | - Melissa L-H Võ
- Scene Grammar Lab, Department of Psychology, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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14
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Williams CC. Looking for your keys: The interaction of attention, memory, and eye movements in visual search. PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING AND MOTIVATION 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.plm.2020.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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15
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Nobre AC, Stokes MG. Premembering Experience: A Hierarchy of Time-Scales for Proactive Attention. Neuron 2019; 104:132-146. [PMID: 31600510 PMCID: PMC6873797 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2019.08.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2019] [Revised: 08/07/2019] [Accepted: 08/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Memories are about the past, but they serve the future. Memory research often emphasizes the former aspect: focusing on the functions that re-constitute (re-member) experience and elucidating the various types of memories and their interrelations, timescales, and neural bases. Here we highlight the prospective nature of memory in guiding selective attention, focusing on functions that use previous experience to anticipate the relevant events about to unfold-to "premember" experience. Memories of various types and timescales play a fundamental role in guiding perception and performance adaptively, proactively, and dynamically. Consonant with this perspective, memories are often recorded according to expected future demands. Using working memory as an example, we consider how mnemonic content is selected and represented for future use. This perspective moves away from the traditional representational account of memory toward a functional account in which forward-looking memory traces are informationally and computationally tuned for interacting with incoming sensory signals to guide adaptive behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna C Nobre
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK; Oxford Centre for Human Brain Activity, Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
| | - Mark G Stokes
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK; Oxford Centre for Human Brain Activity, Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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16
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Võ MLH, Boettcher SEP, Draschkow D. Reading scenes: how scene grammar guides attention and aids perception in real-world environments. Curr Opin Psychol 2019; 29:205-210. [DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2019.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2018] [Revised: 03/07/2019] [Accepted: 03/13/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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17
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Williams CC, Castelhano MS. The Changing Landscape: High-Level Influences on Eye Movement Guidance in Scenes. Vision (Basel) 2019; 3:E33. [PMID: 31735834 PMCID: PMC6802790 DOI: 10.3390/vision3030033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2019] [Revised: 06/20/2019] [Accepted: 06/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of eye movements to explore scene processing has exploded over the last decade. Eye movements provide distinct advantages when examining scene processing because they are both fast and spatially measurable. By using eye movements, researchers have investigated many questions about scene processing. Our review will focus on research performed in the last decade examining: (1) attention and eye movements; (2) where you look; (3) influence of task; (4) memory and scene representations; and (5) dynamic scenes and eye movements. Although typically addressed as separate issues, we argue that these distinctions are now holding back research progress. Instead, it is time to examine the intersections of these seemingly separate influences and examine the intersectionality of how these influences interact to more completely understand what eye movements can tell us about scene processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carrick C. Williams
- Department of Psychology, California State University San Marcos, San Marcos, CA 92069, USA
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Facilitation of allocentric coding by virtue of object-semantics. Sci Rep 2019; 9:6263. [PMID: 31000759 PMCID: PMC6472393 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-42735-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2018] [Accepted: 04/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
In the field of spatial coding it is well established that we mentally represent objects for action not only relative to ourselves, egocentrically, but also relative to other objects (landmarks), allocentrically. Several factors facilitate allocentric coding, for example, when objects are task-relevant or constitute stable and reliable spatial configurations. What is unknown, however, is how object-semantics facilitate the formation of these spatial configurations and thus allocentric coding. Here we demonstrate that (i) we can quantify the semantic similarity of objects and that (ii) semantically similar objects can serve as a cluster of landmarks that are allocentrically coded. Participants arranged a set of objects based on their semantic similarity. These arrangements were then entered into a similarity analysis. Based on the results, we created two semantic classes of objects, natural and man-made, that we used in a virtual reality experiment. Participants were asked to perform memory-guided reaching movements toward the initial position of a target object in a scene while either semantically congruent or incongruent landmarks were shifted. We found that the reaching endpoints systematically deviated in the direction of landmark shift. Importantly, this effect was stronger for shifts of semantically congruent landmarks. Our findings suggest that object-semantics facilitate allocentric coding by creating stable spatial configurations.
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19
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Draschkow D, Reinecke S, Cunningham CA, Võ MLH. The lower bounds of massive memory: Investigating memory for object details after incidental encoding. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2018; 72:1176-1182. [DOI: 10.1177/1747021818783722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Visual long-term memory capacity appears massive and detailed when probed explicitly. In the real world, however, memories are usually built from chance encounters. Therefore, we investigated the capacity and detail of incidental memory in a novel encoding task, instructing participants to detect visually distorted objects among intact objects. In a subsequent surprise recognition memory test, lures of a novel category, another exemplar, the same object in a different state, or exactly the same object were presented. Lure recognition performance was above chance, suggesting that incidental encoding resulted in reliable memory formation. Critically, performance for state lures was worse than for exemplars, which was driven by a greater similarity of state as opposed to exemplar foils to the original objects. Our results indicate that incidentally generated visual long-term memory representations of isolated objects are more limited in detail than recently suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dejan Draschkow
- Department of Psychology, Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Saliha Reinecke
- Department of Psychology, Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Corbin A Cunningham
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Melissa L-H Võ
- Department of Psychology, Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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20
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Hayhoe MM. Davida Teller Award Lecture 2017: What can be learned from natural behavior? J Vis 2018; 18:10. [PMID: 29710300 PMCID: PMC5895074 DOI: 10.1167/18.4.10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2017] [Accepted: 02/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The essentially active nature of vision has long been acknowledged but has been difficult to investigate because of limitations in the available instrumentation, both for measuring eye and body movements and for presenting realistic stimuli in the context of active behavior. These limitations have been substantially reduced in recent years, opening up a wider range of contexts where experimental control is possible. Given this, it is important to examine just what the benefits are for exploring natural vision, with its attendant disadvantages. Work over the last two decades provides insights into these benefits. Natural behavior turns out to be a rich domain for investigation, as it is remarkably stable and opens up new questions, and the behavioral context helps specify the momentary visual computations and their temporal evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary M Hayhoe
- Center for Perceptual Systems, University of Texas Austin, Austin, TX, USA
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21
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Abstract
Search is a central visual function. Most of what is known about search derives from experiments where subjects view 2D displays on computer monitors. In the natural world, however, search involves movement of the body in large-scale spatial contexts, and it is unclear how this might affect search strategies. In this experiment, we explore the nature of memory representations developed when searching in an immersive virtual environment. By manipulating target location, we demonstrate that search depends on episodic spatial memory as well as learnt spatial priors. Subjects rapidly learned the large-scale structure of the space, with shorter paths and less head rotation to find targets. These results suggest that spatial memory of the global structure allows a search strategy that involves efficient attention allocation based on the relevance of scene regions. Thus spatial memory may allow less energetically costly search strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chia-Ling Li
- Center for Perceptual Systems, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, USA.
| | - M Pilar Aivar
- Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Mary M Hayhoe
- Center for Perceptual Systems, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, USA
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22
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Draschkow D, Võ MLH. Scene grammar shapes the way we interact with objects, strengthens memories, and speeds search. Sci Rep 2017; 7:16471. [PMID: 29184115 PMCID: PMC5705766 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-16739-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2017] [Accepted: 11/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Predictions of environmental rules (here referred to as "scene grammar") can come in different forms: seeing a toilet in a living room would violate semantic predictions, while finding a toilet brush next to the toothpaste would violate syntactic predictions. The existence of such predictions has usually been investigated by showing observers images containing such grammatical violations. Conversely, the generative process of creating an environment according to one's scene grammar and its effects on behavior and memory has received little attention. In a virtual reality paradigm, we either instructed participants to arrange objects according to their scene grammar or against it. Subsequently, participants' memory for the arrangements was probed using a surprise recall (Exp1), or repeated search (Exp2) task. As a result, participants' construction behavior showed strategic use of larger, static objects to anchor the location of smaller objects which are generally the goals of everyday actions. Further analysis of this scene construction data revealed possible commonalities between the rules governing word usage in language and object usage in naturalistic environments. Taken together, we revealed some of the building blocks of scene grammar necessary for efficient behavior, which differentially influence how we interact with objects and what we remember about scenes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dejan Draschkow
- Scene Grammar Lab, Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität, Frankfurt, Germany.
| | - Melissa L-H Võ
- Scene Grammar Lab, Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität, Frankfurt, Germany
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23
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Josephs EL, Draschkow D, Wolfe JM, Võ MLH. Gist in time: Scene semantics and structure enhance recall of searched objects. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2016; 169:100-108. [PMID: 27270227 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2016.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2015] [Revised: 02/24/2016] [Accepted: 05/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous work has shown that recall of objects that are incidentally encountered as targets in visual search is better than recall of objects that have been intentionally memorized (Draschkow, Wolfe, & Võ, 2014). However, this counter-intuitive result is not seen when these tasks are performed with non-scene stimuli. The goal of the current paper is to determine what features of search in a scene contribute to higher recall rates when compared to a memorization task. In each of four experiments, we compare the free recall rate for target objects following a search to the rate following a memorization task. Across the experiments, the stimuli include progressively more scene-related information. Experiment 1 provides the spatial relations between objects. Experiment 2 adds relative size and depth of objects. Experiments 3 and 4 include scene layout and semantic information. We find that search leads to better recall than explicit memorization in cases where scene layout and semantic information are present, as long as the participant has ample time (2500ms) to integrate this information with knowledge about the target object (Exp. 4). These results suggest that the integration of scene and target information not only leads to more efficient search, but can also contribute to stronger memory representations than intentional memorization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilie L Josephs
- Cognitive and Neural Organization Lab, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Dejan Draschkow
- Scene Grammar Lab, Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Jeremy M Wolfe
- Visual Attention Lab, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Melissa L-H Võ
- Scene Grammar Lab, Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität, Frankfurt, Germany
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