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Ghiani A, Amelink D, Brenner E, Hooge ITC, Hessels RS. When knowing the activity is not enough to predict gaze. J Vis 2024; 24:6. [PMID: 38984899 PMCID: PMC11238878 DOI: 10.1167/jov.24.7.6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Accepted: 05/31/2024] [Indexed: 07/11/2024] Open
Abstract
It is reasonable to assume that where people look in the world is largely determined by what they are doing. The reasoning is that the activity determines where it is useful to look at each moment in time. Assuming that it is vital to accurately judge the positions of the steps when navigating a staircase, it is surprising that people differ a lot in the extent to which they look at the steps. Apparently, some people consider the accuracy of peripheral vision, predictability of the step size, and feeling the edges of the steps with their feet to be good enough. If so, occluding part of the view of the staircase and making it more important to place one's feet gently might make it more beneficial to look directly at the steps before stepping onto them, so that people will more consistently look at many steps. We tested this idea by asking people to walk on staircases, either with or without a tray with two cups of water on it. When carrying the tray, people walked more slowly, but they shifted their gaze across steps in much the same way as they did when walking without the tray. They did not look at more steps. There was a clear positive correlation between the fraction of steps that people looked at when walking with and without the tray. Thus, the variability in the extent to which people look at the steps persists when one makes walking on the staircase more challenging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Ghiani
- Department of Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Daan Amelink
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Eli Brenner
- Department of Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ignace T C Hooge
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Roy S Hessels
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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2
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da Eira Silva V, Marigold DS. Fork in the road: How self-efficacy related to walking across terrain influences gaze behavior and path choice. J Vis 2024; 24:7. [PMID: 38984898 PMCID: PMC11244644 DOI: 10.1167/jov.24.7.7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Decisions about where to move occur throughout the day and are essential to life. Different movements may present different challenges and affect the likelihood of achieving a goal. Certain choices may have unintended consequences, some of which may cause harm and bias the decision. Movement decisions rely on a person gathering necessary visual information via shifts in gaze. Here we sought to understand what influences this information-seeking gaze behavior. Participants chose between walking across one of two paths that consisted of terrain images found in either hiking or urban environments. We manipulated the number and type of terrain of each path, which altered the amount of available visual information. We recorded gaze behavior during the approach to the paths and had participants rate the confidence in their ability to walk across each terrain type (i.e., self-efficacy) as though it was real. Participants did not direct gaze more to the path with greater visual information, regardless of how we quantified information. Rather, we show that a person's perception of their motor abilities predicts how they visually explore the environment with their eyes as well as their choice of action. The greater the self-efficacy in walking across one path, the more they directed gaze to it and the more likely they chose to walk across it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vinicius da Eira Silva
- Department of Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
- Institute for Neuroscience and Neurotechnology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
| | - Daniel S Marigold
- Department of Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
- Institute for Neuroscience and Neurotechnology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
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3
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Yin T, Hoyet L, Christie M, Cani MP, Pettre J. With or Without You: Effect of Contextual and Responsive Crowds on VR-based Crowd Motion Capture. IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VISUALIZATION AND COMPUTER GRAPHICS 2024; 30:2785-2795. [PMID: 38437106 DOI: 10.1109/tvcg.2024.3372038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/06/2024]
Abstract
While data is vital to better understand and model interactions within human crowds, capturing real crowd motions is extremely challenging. Virtual Reality (VR) demonstrated its potential to help, by immersing users into either simulated virtual crowds based on autonomous agents, or within motion-capture-based crowds. In the latter case, users' own captured motion can be used to progressively extend the size of the crowd, a paradigm called Record-and-Replay (2R). However, both approaches demonstrated several limitations which impact the quality of the acquired crowd data. In this paper, we propose the new concept of contextual crowds to leverage both crowd simulation and the 2R paradigm towards more consistent crowd data. We evaluate two different strategies to implement it, namely a Replace-Record-Replay (3R) paradigm where users are initially immersed into a simulated crowd whose agents are successively replaced by the user's captured-data, and a Replace-Record-Replay-Responsive (4R) paradigm where the pre-recorded agents are additionally endowed with responsive capabilities. These two paradigms are evaluated through two real-world-based scenarios replicated in VR. Our results suggest that the behaviors observed in VR users with surrounding agents from the beginning of the recording process are made much more natural, enabling 3R or 4R paradigms to improve the consistency of captured crowd datasets.
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4
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Hooge ITC, Niehorster DC, Nyström M, Hessels RS. Large eye-head gaze shifts measured with a wearable eye tracker and an industrial camera. Behav Res Methods 2024:10.3758/s13428-023-02316-w. [PMID: 38200239 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-023-02316-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
We built a novel setup to record large gaze shifts (up to 140[Formula: see text]). The setup consists of a wearable eye tracker and a high-speed camera with fiducial marker technology to track the head. We tested our setup by replicating findings from the classic eye-head gaze shift literature. We conclude that our new inexpensive setup is good enough to investigate the dynamics of large eye-head gaze shifts. This novel setup could be used for future research on large eye-head gaze shifts, but also for research on gaze during e.g., human interaction. We further discuss reference frames and terminology in head-free eye tracking. Despite a transition from head-fixed eye tracking to head-free gaze tracking, researchers still use head-fixed eye movement terminology when discussing world-fixed gaze phenomena. We propose to use more specific terminology for world-fixed phenomena, including gaze fixation, gaze pursuit, and gaze saccade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ignace T C Hooge
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - Diederick C Niehorster
- Lund University Humanities Lab and Department of Psychology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Marcus Nyström
- Lund University Humanities Lab, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Roy S Hessels
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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5
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Hooge ITC, Niehorster DC, Hessels RS, Benjamins JS, Nyström M. How robust are wearable eye trackers to slow and fast head and body movements? Behav Res Methods 2023; 55:4128-4142. [PMID: 36326998 PMCID: PMC10700439 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-022-02010-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
How well can modern wearable eye trackers cope with head and body movement? To investigate this question, we asked four participants to stand still, walk, skip, and jump while fixating a static physical target in space. We did this for six different eye trackers. All the eye trackers were capable of recording gaze during the most dynamic episodes (skipping and jumping). The accuracy became worse as movement got wilder. During skipping and jumping, the biggest error was 5.8∘. However, most errors were smaller than 3∘. We discuss the implications of decreased accuracy in the context of different research scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ignace T C Hooge
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - Diederick C Niehorster
- Lund University Humanities Lab and Department of Psychology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Roy S Hessels
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jeroen S Benjamins
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, and Social, Health and Organisational Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Marcus Nyström
- Lund University Humanities Lab, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
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6
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Viktorsson C, Valtakari NV, Falck-Ytter T, Hooge ITC, Rudling M, Hessels RS. Stable eye versus mouth preference in a live speech-processing task. Sci Rep 2023; 13:12878. [PMID: 37553414 PMCID: PMC10409748 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-40017-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2023] [Accepted: 08/03/2023] [Indexed: 08/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Looking at the mouth region is thought to be a useful strategy for speech-perception tasks. The tendency to look at the eyes versus the mouth of another person during speech processing has thus far mainly been studied using screen-based paradigms. In this study, we estimated the eye-mouth-index (EMI) of 38 adult participants in a live setting. Participants were seated across the table from an experimenter, who read sentences out loud for the participant to remember in both a familiar (English) and unfamiliar (Finnish) language. No statistically significant difference in the EMI between the familiar and the unfamiliar languages was observed. Total relative looking time at the mouth also did not predict the number of correctly identified sentences. Instead, we found that the EMI was higher during an instruction phase than during the speech-processing task. Moreover, we observed high intra-individual correlations in the EMI across the languages and different phases of the experiment. We conclude that there are stable individual differences in looking at the eyes versus the mouth of another person. Furthermore, this behavior appears to be flexible and dependent on the requirements of the situation (speech processing or not).
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Viktorsson
- Development and Neurodiversity Lab, Department of Psychology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Niilo V Valtakari
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Terje Falck-Ytter
- Development and Neurodiversity Lab, Department of Psychology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
- Center of Neurodevelopmental Disorders (KIND), Division of Neuropsychiatry, Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ignace T C Hooge
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Maja Rudling
- Development and Neurodiversity Lab, Department of Psychology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Roy S Hessels
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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7
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Looking at faces in the wild. Sci Rep 2023; 13:783. [PMID: 36646709 PMCID: PMC9842722 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-25268-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Faces are key to everyday social interactions, but our understanding of social attention is based on experiments that present images of faces on computer screens. Advances in wearable eye-tracking devices now enable studies in unconstrained natural settings but this approach has been limited by manual coding of fixations. Here we introduce an automatic 'dynamic region of interest' approach that registers eye-fixations to bodies and faces seen while a participant moves through the environment. We show that just 14% of fixations are to faces of passersby, contrasting with prior screen-based studies that suggest faces automatically capture visual attention. We also demonstrate the potential for this new tool to help understand differences in individuals' social attention, and the content of their perceptual exposure to other people. Together, this can form the basis of a new paradigm for studying social attention 'in the wild' that opens new avenues for theoretical, applied and clinical research.
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8
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Holmqvist K, Örbom SL, Hooge ITC, Niehorster DC, Alexander RG, Andersson R, Benjamins JS, Blignaut P, Brouwer AM, Chuang LL, Dalrymple KA, Drieghe D, Dunn MJ, Ettinger U, Fiedler S, Foulsham T, van der Geest JN, Hansen DW, Hutton SB, Kasneci E, Kingstone A, Knox PC, Kok EM, Lee H, Lee JY, Leppänen JM, Macknik S, Majaranta P, Martinez-Conde S, Nuthmann A, Nyström M, Orquin JL, Otero-Millan J, Park SY, Popelka S, Proudlock F, Renkewitz F, Roorda A, Schulte-Mecklenbeck M, Sharif B, Shic F, Shovman M, Thomas MG, Venrooij W, Zemblys R, Hessels RS. Eye tracking: empirical foundations for a minimal reporting guideline. Behav Res Methods 2023; 55:364-416. [PMID: 35384605 PMCID: PMC9535040 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-021-01762-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
In this paper, we present a review of how the various aspects of any study using an eye tracker (such as the instrument, methodology, environment, participant, etc.) affect the quality of the recorded eye-tracking data and the obtained eye-movement and gaze measures. We take this review to represent the empirical foundation for reporting guidelines of any study involving an eye tracker. We compare this empirical foundation to five existing reporting guidelines and to a database of 207 published eye-tracking studies. We find that reporting guidelines vary substantially and do not match with actual reporting practices. We end by deriving a minimal, flexible reporting guideline based on empirical research (Section "An empirically based minimal reporting guideline").
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth Holmqvist
- Department of Psychology, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Torun, Poland.
- Department of Computer Science and Informatics, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa.
- Department of Psychology, Regensburg University, Regensburg, Germany.
| | - Saga Lee Örbom
- Department of Psychology, Regensburg University, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Ignace T C Hooge
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Diederick C Niehorster
- Lund University Humanities Lab and Department of Psychology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Robert G Alexander
- Department of Ophthalmology, SUNY Downstate Health Sciences University, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | | | - Jeroen S Benjamins
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Social, Health and Organizational Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Pieter Blignaut
- Department of Computer Science and Informatics, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
| | | | - Lewis L Chuang
- Department of Ergonomics, Leibniz Institute for Working Environments and Human Factors, Dortmund, Germany
- Institute of Informatics, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | | | - Denis Drieghe
- School of Psychology, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
| | - Matt J Dunn
- School of Optometry and Vision Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | | | - Susann Fiedler
- Vienna University of Economics and Business, Vienna, Austria
| | - Tom Foulsham
- Department of Psychology, University of Essex, Essex, UK
| | | | - Dan Witzner Hansen
- Machine Learning Group, Department of Computer Science, IT University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Enkelejda Kasneci
- Human-Computer Interaction, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | | | - Paul C Knox
- Department of Eye and Vision Science, Institute of Life Course and Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Ellen M Kok
- Department of Education and Pedagogy, Division Education, Faculty of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Department of Online Learning and Instruction, Faculty of Educational Sciences, Open University of the Netherlands, Heerlen, The Netherlands
| | - Helena Lee
- University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
| | - Joy Yeonjoo Lee
- School of Health Professions Education, Faculty of Health, Medicine, and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Jukka M Leppänen
- Department of Psychology and Speed-Language Pathology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Stephen Macknik
- Department of Ophthalmology, SUNY Downstate Health Sciences University, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | - Päivi Majaranta
- TAUCHI Research Center, Computing Sciences, Faculty of Information Technology and Communication Sciences, Tampere University, Tampere, Finland
| | - Susana Martinez-Conde
- Department of Ophthalmology, SUNY Downstate Health Sciences University, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | - Antje Nuthmann
- Institute of Psychology, University of Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Marcus Nyström
- Lund University Humanities Lab, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Jacob L Orquin
- Department of Management, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- Center for Research in Marketing and Consumer Psychology, Reykjavik University, Reykjavik, Iceland
| | - Jorge Otero-Millan
- Herbert Wertheim School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Soon Young Park
- Comparative Cognition, Messerli Research Institute, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Stanislav Popelka
- Department of Geoinformatics, Palacký University Olomouc, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Frank Proudlock
- The University of Leicester Ulverscroft Eye Unit, Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
| | - Frank Renkewitz
- Department of Psychology, University of Erfurt, Erfurt, Germany
| | - Austin Roorda
- Herbert Wertheim School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | | | - Bonita Sharif
- School of Computing, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
| | - Frederick Shic
- Center for Child Health, Behavior and Development, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA
- Department of General Pediatrics, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Mark Shovman
- Eyeviation Systems, Herzliya, Israel
- Department of Industrial Design, Bezalel Academy of Arts and Design, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Mervyn G Thomas
- The University of Leicester Ulverscroft Eye Unit, Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
| | - Ward Venrooij
- Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science (EEMCS), University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | | | - Roy S Hessels
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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9
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Eye contact avoidance in crowds: A large wearable eye-tracking study. Atten Percept Psychophys 2022; 84:2623-2640. [PMID: 35996058 PMCID: PMC9630249 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-022-02541-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Eye contact is essential for human interactions. We investigated whether humans are able to avoid eye contact while navigating crowds. At a science festival, we fitted 62 participants with a wearable eye tracker and instructed them to walk a route. Half of the participants were further instructed to avoid eye contact. We report that humans can flexibly allocate their gaze while navigating crowds and avoid eye contact primarily by orienting their head and eyes towards the floor. We discuss implications for crowd navigation and gaze behavior. In addition, we address a number of issues encountered in such field studies with regard to data quality, control of the environment, and participant adherence to instructions. We stress that methodological innovation and scientific progress are strongly interrelated.
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10
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Hoogerbrugge AJ, Strauch C, Oláh ZA, Dalmaijer ES, Nijboer TCW, Van der Stigchel S. Seeing the Forrest through the trees: Oculomotor metrics are linked to heart rate. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0272349. [PMID: 35917377 PMCID: PMC9345484 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0272349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Fluctuations in a person’s arousal accompany mental states such as drowsiness, mental effort, or motivation, and have a profound effect on task performance. Here, we investigated the link between two central instances affected by arousal levels, heart rate and eye movements. In contrast to heart rate, eye movements can be inferred remotely and unobtrusively, and there is evidence that oculomotor metrics (i.e., fixations and saccades) are indicators for aspects of arousal going hand in hand with changes in mental effort, motivation, or task type. Gaze data and heart rate of 14 participants during film viewing were used in Random Forest models, the results of which show that blink rate and duration, and the movement aspect of oculomotor metrics (i.e., velocities and amplitudes) link to heart rate–more so than the amount or duration of fixations and saccades. We discuss that eye movements are not only linked to heart rate, but they may both be similarly influenced by the common underlying arousal system. These findings provide new pathways for the remote measurement of arousal, and its link to psychophysiological features.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex J. Hoogerbrugge
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
- * E-mail:
| | - Christoph Strauch
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Zoril A. Oláh
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Edwin S. Dalmaijer
- School of Psychological Science, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Tanja C. W. Nijboer
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
- Center of Excellence for Rehabilitation Medicine, UMC Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, De Hoogstraat Rehabilitation, Utrecht, Netherlands
- Department of Rehabilitation, Physical Therapy Science & Sports, UMC Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands
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11
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Berton F, Grzeskowiak F, Bonneau A, Jovane A, Aggravi M, Hoyet L, Olivier AH, Pacchierotti C, Pettre J. Crowd Navigation in VR: Exploring Haptic Rendering of Collisions. IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VISUALIZATION AND COMPUTER GRAPHICS 2022; 28:2589-2601. [PMID: 33253117 DOI: 10.1109/tvcg.2020.3041341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Virtual reality (VR) is a valuable experimental tool for studying human movement, including the analysis of interactions during locomotion tasks for developing crowd simulation algorithms. However, these studies are generally limited to distant interactions in crowds, due to the difficulty of rendering realistic sensations of collisions in VR. In this article, we explore the use of wearable haptics to render contacts during virtual crowd navigation. We focus on the behavioral changes occurring with or without haptic rendering during a navigation task in a dense crowd, as well as on potential after-effects introduced by the use haptic rendering. Our objective is to provide recommendations for designing VR setup to study crowd navigation behavior. To the end, we designed an experiment (N=23) where participants navigated in a crowded virtual train station without, then with, and then again without haptic feedback of their collisions with virtual characters. Results show that providing haptic feedback improved the overall realism of the interaction, as participants more actively avoided collisions. We also noticed a significant after-effect in the users' behavior when haptic rendering was once again disabled in the third part of the experiment. Nonetheless, haptic feedback did not have any significant impact on the users' sense of presence and embodiment.
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12
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Holleman GA, Hooge ITC, Huijding J, Deković M, Kemner C, Hessels RS. Gaze and speech behavior in parent–child interactions: The role of conflict and cooperation. CURRENT PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s12144-021-02532-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
AbstractA primary mode of human social behavior is face-to-face interaction. In this study, we investigated the characteristics of gaze and its relation to speech behavior during video-mediated face-to-face interactions between parents and their preadolescent children. 81 parent–child dyads engaged in conversations about cooperative and conflictive family topics. We used a dual-eye tracking setup that is capable of concurrently recording eye movements, frontal video, and audio from two conversational partners. Our results show that children spoke more in the cooperation-scenario whereas parents spoke more in the conflict-scenario. Parents gazed slightly more at the eyes of their children in the conflict-scenario compared to the cooperation-scenario. Both parents and children looked more at the other's mouth region while listening compared to while speaking. Results are discussed in terms of the role that parents and children take during cooperative and conflictive interactions and how gaze behavior may support and coordinate such interactions.
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13
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Gaze behavior during pedestrian interactions in a community environment: a real-world perspective. Exp Brain Res 2021; 239:2317-2330. [PMID: 34091697 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-021-06145-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Accepted: 05/27/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Locomotor adaptations, as required for community walking, rely heavily on the sense of vision. Little is known, however, about gaze behavior during pedestrian interactions while ambulating in the community. Our objective was to characterize gaze behavior while walking in a community environment and interacting with pedestrians of different locations and directions. Twelve healthy young individuals were assessed as they walked in a shopping mall from a pre-set location to a goal located 20 m ahead. Eye movements were recorded with a binocular eye-tracker and temporal distance factors were assessed using wearable sensors from a full-body motion capture system. Participants exhibited more numerous and longer gaze episodes on pedestrians (GEP) that were walking in the same direction as themselves vs. those that were in the opposite direction. The relative durations of GEPs, however, showed no significant differences between pedestrians walking in the same vs. opposite direction. Longer durations of GEPs were also observed for centrally located pedestrians compared to those located on either side, but this was the case only for pedestrians that were walking in the same direction as participants. In addition, pedestrians in the centre, and even more so those on the right, were fixated at farther distances compared to those on the left. Results indicate that healthy young individuals modulate their gaze behavior as a function of the location and direction of pedestrians when ambulating in a community environment. The observed modulation is interpreted as being caused by an interplay between collision risk, pedestrian visibility, presence of leaders and social conventions (right-sided circulation). Present results also establish baseline measures for the quantification of defective visuomotor strategies in individuals with mobility disorders.
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14
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Abstract
There is a long history of interest in looking behavior during human interaction. With the advance of (wearable) video-based eye trackers, it has become possible to measure gaze during many different interactions. We outline the different types of eye-tracking setups that currently exist to investigate gaze during interaction. The setups differ mainly with regard to the nature of the eye-tracking signal (head- or world-centered) and the freedom of movement allowed for the participants. These features place constraints on the research questions that can be answered about human interaction. We end with a decision tree to help researchers judge the appropriateness of specific setups.
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15
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GlassesViewer: Open-source software for viewing and analyzing data from the Tobii Pro Glasses 2 eye tracker. Behav Res Methods 2020; 52:1244-1253. [PMID: 31898293 PMCID: PMC7280338 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-019-01314-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
We present GlassesViewer, open-source software for viewing and analyzing eye-tracking data of the Tobii Pro Glasses 2 head-mounted eye tracker as well as the scene and eye videos and other data streams (pupil size, gyroscope, accelerometer, and TTL input) that this headset can record. The software provides the following functionality written in MATLAB: (1) a graphical interface for navigating the study- and recording structure produced by the Tobii Glasses 2; (2) functionality to unpack, parse, and synchronize the various data and video streams comprising a Glasses 2 recording; and (3) a graphical interface for viewing the Glasses 2's gaze direction, pupil size, gyroscope and accelerometer time-series data, along with the recorded scene and eye camera videos. In this latter interface, segments of data can furthermore be labeled through user-provided event classification algorithms or by means of manual annotation. Lastly, the toolbox provides integration with the GazeCode tool by Benjamins et al. (2018), enabling a completely open-source workflow for analyzing Tobii Pro Glasses 2 recordings.
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Hessels RS, Benjamins JS, van Doorn AJ, Koenderink JJ, Holleman GA, Hooge ITC. Looking behavior and potential human interactions during locomotion. J Vis 2020; 20:5. [PMID: 33007079 PMCID: PMC7545070 DOI: 10.1167/jov.20.10.5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
As humans move through parts of their environment, they meet others that may or may not try to interact with them. Where do people look when they meet others? We had participants wearing an eye tracker walk through a university building. On the way, they encountered nine “walkers.” Walkers were instructed to e.g. ignore the participant, greet him or her, or attempt to hand out a flyer. The participant's gaze was mostly directed to the currently relevant body parts of the walker. Thus, the participants gaze depended on the walker's action. Individual differences in participant's looking behavior were consistent across walkers. Participants who did not respond to the walker seemed to look less at that walker, although this difference was not statistically significant. We suggest that models of gaze allocation should take social motivation into account.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roy S Hessels
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands.,
| | - Jeroen S Benjamins
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, and Social, Health and Organizational Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands.,
| | - Andrea J van Doorn
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands.,
| | - Jan J Koenderink
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands.,
| | - Gijs A Holleman
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands.,
| | - Ignace T C Hooge
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands.,
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Holleman GA, Hooge ITC, Kemner C, Hessels RS. The 'Real-World Approach' and Its Problems: A Critique of the Term Ecological Validity. Front Psychol 2020; 11:721. [PMID: 32425850 PMCID: PMC7204431 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
A popular goal in psychological science is to understand human cognition and behavior in the 'real-world.' In contrast, researchers have typically conducted their research in experimental research settings, a.k.a. the 'psychologist's laboratory.' Critics have often questioned whether psychology's laboratory experiments permit generalizable results. This is known as the 'real-world or the lab'-dilemma. To bridge the gap between lab and life, many researchers have called for experiments with more 'ecological validity' to ensure that experiments more closely resemble and generalize to the 'real-world.' However, researchers seldom explain what they mean with this term, nor how more ecological validity should be achieved. In our opinion, the popular concept of ecological validity is ill-formed, lacks specificity, and falls short of addressing the problem of generalizability. To move beyond the 'real-world or the lab'-dilemma, we believe that researchers in psychological science should always specify the particular context of cognitive and behavioral functioning in which they are interested, instead of advocating that experiments should be more 'ecologically valid' in order to generalize to the 'real-world.' We believe this will be a more constructive way to uncover the context-specific and context-generic principles of cognition and behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gijs A. Holleman
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
- Department of Developmental Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Ignace T. C. Hooge
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Chantal Kemner
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
- Department of Developmental Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
- Brain Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Roy S. Hessels
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
- Department of Developmental Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
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