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Colautti L, Iannello P, Silveri MC, Antonietti A. Decision-making under ambiguity and risk and executive functions in Parkinson's disease patients: A scoping review of the studies investigating the Iowa Gambling Task and the Game of Dice. COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE & BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE 2023; 23:1225-1243. [PMID: 37198383 PMCID: PMC10545597 DOI: 10.3758/s13415-023-01106-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Evidence shows that patients affected by Parkinson's disease (PD) display the tendency toward making risky choices. This is due, at least in part, to the pathophysiological characteristics of the disease that affects neural areas underlying decision making (DM), in which a pivotal role is played by nonmotor corticostriatal circuits and dopamine. Executive functions (EFs), which can be impaired by PD as well, may sustain optimal choices in DM processes. However, few studies have investigated whether EFs can support PD patients to make good decisions. Adopting the scoping review approach, the present article is designed to deepen the cognitive mechanisms of DM under conditions of ambiguity and risk (that are conditions common to everyday life decisions) in PD patients without impulse control disorders. We focused our attention on the Iowa Gambling Task and the Game of Dice Task, because they are the most commonly used and reliable tasks to assess DM under ambiguity and under risk, respectively, and analyzed the performances in such tasks and their relationships with EFs tests in PD patients. The analysis supported the relationships between EFs and DM performance, especially when a higher cognitive load is required to make optimal decisions, as it happens under conditions of risk. Possible knowledge gaps and further research directions are suggested to better understand DM mechanisms in PD sustaining patients' cognitive functioning and preventing negative consequences in everyday life derived from suboptimal decisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Colautti
- Department of Psychology, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Laura Colautti, Largo A. Gemelli, 1, 20123 Milan, Italy
| | - Paola Iannello
- Department of Psychology, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Laura Colautti, Largo A. Gemelli, 1, 20123 Milan, Italy
| | - Maria Caterina Silveri
- Department of Psychology, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Laura Colautti, Largo A. Gemelli, 1, 20123 Milan, Italy
| | - Alessandro Antonietti
- Department of Psychology, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Laura Colautti, Largo A. Gemelli, 1, 20123 Milan, Italy
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Costello H, Berry AJ, Reeves S, Weil RS, Joyce EM, Howard R, Roiser JP. Disrupted reward processing in Parkinson's disease and its relationship with dopamine state and neuropsychiatric syndromes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2022; 93:555-562. [PMID: 34930778 PMCID: PMC9016258 DOI: 10.1136/jnnp-2021-327762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Accepted: 11/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Neuropsychiatric symptoms are common in Parkinson's disease (PD) and predict poorer outcomes. Reward processing dysfunction is a candidate mechanism for the development of psychiatric symptoms including depression and impulse control disorders (ICDs). We aimed to determine whether reward processing is impaired in PD and its relationship with neuropsychiatric syndromes and dopamine replacement therapy. METHODS The Ovid MEDLINE/PubMed, Embase and PsycInfo databases were searched for articles published up to 5 November 2020. Studies reporting reward processing task performance by patients with PD and healthy controls were included. Summary statistics comparing reward processing between groups were converted to standardised mean difference (SMD) scores and meta-analysed using a random effects model. RESULTS We identified 55 studies containing 2578 participants (1638 PD and 940 healthy controls). Studies assessing three subcomponent categories of reward processing tasks were included: option valuation (n=12), reinforcement learning (n=37) and reward response vigour (n=6). Across all studies, patients with PD on medication exhibited a small-to-medium impairment versus healthy controls (SMD=0.34; 95% CI 0.14 to 0.53), with greater impairments observed off dopaminergic medication in within-subjects designs (SMD=0.43, 95% CI 0.29 to 0.57). Within-subjects subcomponent analysis revealed impaired processing off medication on option valuation (SMD=0.57, 95% CI 0.39 to 0.75) and reward response vigour (SMD=0.36, 95% CI 0.13 to 0.59) tasks. However, the opposite applied for reinforcement learning, which relative to healthy controls was impaired on-medication (SMD=0.45, 95% CI 0.25 to 0.65) but not off-medication (SMD=0.28, 95% CI -0.03 to 0.59). ICD was the only neuropsychiatric syndrome with sufficient studies (n=13) for meta-analysis, but no significant impairment was identified compared tonon-ICD patients (SMD=-0.02, 95% CI -0.43 to 0.39). CONCLUSION Reward processing disruption in PD differs according to subcomponent and dopamine medication state, and warrants further study as a potential treatment target and mechanism underlying associated neuropsychiatric syndromes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harry Costello
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, London, UK
| | - Alex J Berry
- Division of Psychiatry, University College London, London, UK
| | - Suzanne Reeves
- Division of Psychiatry, University College London, London, UK
| | - Rimona S Weil
- Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Eileen M Joyce
- Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Robert Howard
- Division of Psychiatry, University College London, London, UK
| | - Jonathan P Roiser
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, London, UK
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Zapf AC, Folkerts AK, Kahler L, Schnitzler A, Reker P, Barbe MT, Florin E, Kalbe E. No Higher Risk-Seeking Tendencies or Altered Self-Estimation in a Social Decision-Making Task in Patients with Parkinson's Disease. JOURNAL OF PARKINSON'S DISEASE 2022; 12:1045-1057. [PMID: 35180130 DOI: 10.3233/jpd-212960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Parkinson's disease (PD) has been associated with a tendency towards more risky decisions. However, the commonly used paradigms typically neglect the social context. OBJECTIVE Here, we investigated social decision-making and self-estimation in a competitive experimental task. METHODS A computerized experimental setting was used in which 86 PD patients (age = 66.5 [50-79], 62.8% male, H&Y = 2 [1.5-3]) and 44 healthy controls (HC; age = 67 [54-79], 54.4% male) in groups of four performed mathematical addition tasks in which they were asked to calculate as many sums as possible in five minutes. Participants had to choose their preferred compensation scheme ("piece rate" versus "tournament") and retrospectively rank their performance in comparison to the suspected performance of the others. A comprehensive neuropsychological test battery was also conducted. RESULTS No significant difference was found in overall social decision-making and self-estimation between PD patients and HC. However, for those individuals who made inadequate decisions, PD patients engaged in significantly more risk-averse and HC in more risky decisions. Concerning those inadequate decisions, the PD patients made more extreme decisions (severity of social decision-making) in both directions (risk-averse, risk-seeking). CONCLUSION Our data indicate that social decision-making behavior and self-estimation are largely intact in PD patients with mild to moderate disease stages and intact global cognition, executive functions, and social cognition. Future studies with more heterogeneous PD samples regarding their neuropsychological profile will have to examine at which state social decision-making may be affected and by which factors this behavior might be influenced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra C Zapf
- Department of Medical Psychology | Neuropsychology and Gender Studies & Center for Neuropsychological Diagnostics and Intervention (CeNDI), Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Ann-Kristin Folkerts
- Department of Medical Psychology | Neuropsychology and Gender Studies & Center for Neuropsychological Diagnostics and Intervention (CeNDI), Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Larissa Kahler
- Department of Medical Psychology | Neuropsychology and Gender Studies & Center for Neuropsychological Diagnostics and Intervention (CeNDI), Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Alfons Schnitzler
- Institute of Clinical Neuroscience and Medical Psychology & Department of Neurology - Center for Movement Disorders and Neuromodulation, Medical Faculty, Heinrich Heine University of Duesseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany
| | - Paul Reker
- Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Michael T Barbe
- Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Esther Florin
- Institute of Clinical Neuroscience and Medical Psychology & Department of Neurology - Center for Movement Disorders and Neuromodulation, Medical Faculty, Heinrich Heine University of Duesseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany
| | - Elke Kalbe
- Department of Medical Psychology | Neuropsychology and Gender Studies & Center for Neuropsychological Diagnostics and Intervention (CeNDI), Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
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Gross J, Faber NS, Kappes A, Nussberger AM, Cowen PJ, Browning M, Kahane G, Savulescu J, Crockett MJ, De Dreu CK. When Helping Is Risky: The Behavioral and Neurobiological Trade-off of Social and Risk Preferences. Psychol Sci 2021; 32:1842-1855. [PMID: 34705578 PMCID: PMC7614101 DOI: 10.1177/09567976211015942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Helping other people can entail risks for the helper. For example, when treating infectious patients, medical volunteers risk their own health. In such situations, decisions to help should depend on the individual's valuation of others' well-being (social preferences) and the degree of personal risk the individual finds acceptable (risk preferences). We investigated how these distinct preferences are psychologically and neurobiologically integrated when helping is risky. We used incentivized decision-making tasks (Study 1; N = 292 adults) and manipulated dopamine and norepinephrine levels in the brain by administering methylphenidate, atomoxetine, or a placebo (Study 2; N = 154 adults). We found that social and risk preferences are independent drivers of risky helping. Methylphenidate increased risky helping by selectively altering risk preferences rather than social preferences. Atomoxetine influenced neither risk preferences nor social preferences and did not affect risky helping. This suggests that methylphenidate-altered dopamine concentrations affect helping decisions that entail a risk to the helper.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jörg Gross
- Institute of Psychology, Leiden University,Corresponding author: Jörg Gross, Leiden University, Institute of Psychology, Wassenaarseweg 52, 2300 RB Leiden, , +31 71 527 2727
| | - Nadira S. Faber
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter,Oxford Uehiro Centre for Practical Ethics, University of Oxford
| | | | | | - Philip J Cowen
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford,Oxford Health NHS Foundation Trust, Oxford
| | - Michael Browning
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford,Oxford Health NHS Foundation Trust, Oxford
| | - Guy Kahane
- Oxford Uehiro Centre for Practical Ethics, University of Oxford
| | | | | | - Carsten K.W. De Dreu
- Institute of Psychology, Leiden University,Center for Research in Experimental Economics and Political Decision Making (CREED), University of Amsterdam
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Risk factors of impulsive-compulsive behaviors in PD patients: a meta-analysis. J Neurol 2021; 269:1298-1315. [PMID: 34370054 DOI: 10.1007/s00415-021-10724-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2021] [Revised: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 07/24/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To summarize the reliable risk factors of impulsive-compulsive behaviors (ICBs) in Parkinson's disease (PD) patients through a meta-analysis on studies in which PD-ICBs were diagnosed by clinical interview. METHODS PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, CNKI and Wanfang databases were searched. We selected studies ensuring that diagnosis of ICBs in PD patients depends on semi-structured interviews according to the clinical diagnostic criteria of ICBs. The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale was used to evaluate quality of the included studies. The analyzed factors included demographic information, clinical characteristics of PD and medications. RESULTS A total of 856 records were screened and 66 full texts were evaluated, and 13 studies (684 PD patients with ICBs [PD-ICBs] and 3,382 PD patients without ICBs [PD-non-ICBs]) were included. Compared with PD-non-ICBs, PD-ICBs were younger in age (- 3.7 [- 5.53, - 1.87], P < 0.0001), with a greater proportion of males (1.64 [1.21, 2.22], P = 0.001), with a younger age of PD onset (- 5.42 [- 7.87, - 2.97], P < 0.0001) and a longer course of PD (1.30 [0.38, 2.22], P = 0.005). PD-ICBs were also associated with higher HAM-D (1.74 [0.47, 3.01], P = 0.007), more levodopa dosage (1.74 [1.09, 2.77], P = 0.02) and dopamine receptor agonists (DA) use (3.96 [2.74, 5.71), P < 0.00001), and higher average dose (levodopa 117.53 [53.59, 181.46], P = 0.0003; DA 80.03 [46.16, 113.90], P < 0.00001), as well as more amantadine use (2.20 [1.42, 3.40], P = 0.0004). The meta-analysis of most factors showed less heterogeneity, except age, age of onset, PD duration, Hoehn and Yahr stage, MMSE and drug dosage. However, whether rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder, dyskinesia, genetic polymorphism and other factors are risk factors for PD-ICBs remains unclear. CONCLUSION This meta-analysis suggests that males, young, early disease onset, long disease duration, depression, dose of levodopa, dopamine receptor agonists and amantadine are risk factors of ICBs in PD patients.
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Wolf A, Ueda K. Contribution of Eye-Tracking to Study Cognitive Impairments Among Clinical Populations. Front Psychol 2021; 12:590986. [PMID: 34163391 PMCID: PMC8215550 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.590986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2020] [Accepted: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
In the field of psychology, the merge of decision-theory and neuroscientific methods produces an array of scientifically recognized paradigms. For example, by exploring consumer’s eye-movement behavior, researchers aim to deepen the understanding of how patterns of retinal activation are being meaningfully transformed into visual experiences and connected with specific reactions (e.g., purchase). Notably, eye-movements provide knowledge of one’s homeostatic balance and gatekeep information that shape decisions. Hence, vision science investigates the quality of observed environments determined under various experimental conditions. Moreover, it answers questions on how human process visual stimuli and use gained information for a successful strategy to achieve certain goals. While capturing cognitive states with the support of the eye-trackers progresses at a relatively fast pace in decision-making research, measuring the visual performance of real-life tasks, which require complex cognitive skills, is tentatively translated into clinical experiments. Nevertheless, the potential of the human eye as a highly valuable source of biomarkers has been underlined. In this article, we aim to draw readers attention to decision-making experimental paradigms supported with eye-tracking technology among clinical populations. Such interdisciplinary approach may become an important component that will (i) help in objectively illustrating patient’s models of beliefs and values, (ii) support clinical interventions, and (iii) contribute to health services. It is possible that shortly, eye-movement data from decision-making experiments will grant the scientific community a greater understanding of mechanisms underlining mental states and consumption practices that medical professionals consider as obsessions, disorders or addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Wolf
- JSPS International Research Fellow, Research Center for Applied Perceptual Science, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Kazuo Ueda
- Unit of Perceptual Psychology, Dept. Human Science, Research Center for Applied Perceptual Science, Division of Auditory and Visual Perception Research, Research and Development Center for Five-Sense Devices, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
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Chang FY, Wiratman W, Ugawa Y, Kobayashi S. Event-Related Potentials During Decision-Making in a Mixed-Strategy Game. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:552750. [PMID: 33815035 PMCID: PMC8017162 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.552750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2020] [Accepted: 02/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The decisions we make are sometimes influenced by interactions with other agents. Previous studies have suggested that the prefrontal cortex plays an important role in decision-making and that the dopamine system underlies processes of motivation, motor preparation, and reinforcement learning. However, the physiological mechanisms underlying how the prefrontal cortex and the dopaminergic system are involved in decision-making remain largely unclear. The present study aimed to determine how decision strategies influence event-related potentials (ERPs). We also tested the effect of levodopa, a dopamine precursor, on decision-making and ERPs in a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled investigation. The subjects performed a matching-pennies task against an opposing virtual computer player by choosing between right and left targets while their ERPs were recorded. According to the rules of the matching-pennies task, the subject won the trial when they chose the same side as the opponent, and lost otherwise. We set three different task rules: (1) with the alternation (ALT) rule, the computer opponent made alternating choices of right and left in sequential trials; (2) with the random (RAND) rule, the opponent randomly chose between right and left; and (3) with the GAME rule, the opponent analyzed the subject's past choices to predict the subject's next choice, and then chose the opposite side. A sustained medial ERP became more negative toward the time of the subject's target choice. A biphasic potential appeared when the opponent's choice was revealed after the subject's response. The ERPs around the subject's choice were greater in RAND and GAME than in ALT, and the negative peak was enhanced by levodopa. In addition to these medial ERPs, we observed lateral frontal ERPs tuned to the choice direction. The signals emerged around the choice period selectively in RAND and GAME when levodopa was administered. These results suggest that decision processes are modulated by the dopamine system when a complex and strategic decision is required, which may reflect decision updating with dopaminergic prediction error signals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fang-Yu Chang
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima, Japan
| | - Winnugroho Wiratman
- Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Indonesia, Cipto Mangunkusumo Hospital, Jakarta, Indonesia
| | - Yoshikazu Ugawa
- Department of Human Neurophysiology, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima, Japan.,Department of Neurology, Takeda General Hospital, Fukushima, Japan
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Kjær SW, Callesen MB, Larsen L, Borghammer P, Østergaard K, Damholdt MF. Applied strategy in the Iowa Gambling Task: Comparison of individuals with Parkinson's disease to healthy controls. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2020; 42:425-435. [PMID: 32283989 DOI: 10.1080/13803395.2020.1749237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Decision-making impairments in Parkinson's disease (PD) have frequently been measured using the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT), though results have been inconsistent. At present, task performance has primarily been evaluated based on the total IGT score, and there is a need for further analysis of the strategy of older individuals with PD and healthy control (HC) participants in IGT. OBJECTIVE The present study aims to explore possible impairments in IGT performance in individuals with PD compared to healthy controls using strategy analysis, extending previous results on this subject, and to discuss potential effects of medication on task performance. METHODS 67 individuals with PD and 29 HC participants completed the IGT. Results were analyzed to evaluate impairments, applied strategies, presence of subgroups, and potential effects of medication on performance. RESULTS Both groups obtained a low overall IGT score and individuals with PD had significantly lower total IGT scores compared to HC participants. Regression analysis showed a small, but significant relationship between levodopa and dopamine agonist dosage and total IGT score, indicating that medication level could be a marker of level of executive functions. Subgroups of advantageous and disadvantageous choosers differed significantly in deck preferences for both groups. CONCLUSION Individuals with PD were significantly impaired in IGT performance, both in overall scores and in detailed analyses, and they utilized an inefficient strategy during task performance. However, HC participants also presented with a suboptimal strategy and results suggest the presence of subgroups in both individuals with PD and HC participants, which may reflect age-related changes. These results are in line with previous research on performance of older individuals and alternative deck preferences in the IGT and underline the importance of considering the applied strategy in the evaluation of IGT performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Wohlert Kjær
- Department of Psychology and Behavioural Sciences, Aarhus University , Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Mette Buhl Callesen
- Centre for Alcohol and Drug Research, Department of Psychology and Behavioural Sciences, Aarhus University , Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Lars Larsen
- Department of Psychology and Behavioural Sciences, Aarhus University , Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Per Borghammer
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and PET Centre, Aarhus University Hospital , Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Karen Østergaard
- Department of Neurology, Aarhus University Hospital , Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Malene Flensborg Damholdt
- Department of Psychology and Behavioural Sciences, Aarhus University , Aarhus, Denmark.,Department of Philosophy and the History of Ideas, Aarhus University , Aarhus, Denmark.,Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University , Aarhus, Denmark
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Cherkasova MV, Corrow JC, Taylor A, Yeung SC, Stubbs JL, McKeown MJ, Appel-Cresswell S, Stoessl AJ, Barton JJS. Dopamine replacement remediates risk aversion in Parkinson's disease in a value-independent manner. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2019; 66:189-194. [PMID: 31473085 DOI: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2019.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2019] [Revised: 08/15/2019] [Accepted: 08/26/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Clinical evidence suggests that Parkinson's Disease (PD) patients are risk averse. Dopaminergic therapy has been reported to increase risk tolerance, but the underlying mechanisms are unclear. Some studies have suggested an amplification of subjective reward value, consistent with the role of dopamine in reward value coding. Others have reported value-independent risk enhancement. We evaluated the value-dependence of the effects of PD and its therapy on risk using tasks designed to sensitively measure risk over a wide range of expected values. METHOD 36 patients with idiopathic PD receiving levodopa monotherapy and 36 healthy matched controls performed two behavioural economic tasks aimed at quantifying 1) risk tolerance/aversion in the gain frame and 2) valuation of potential gains relative to losses. PD patients performed the tasks on and off their usual dose of levodopa in randomized order; controls performed the same tasks twice. RESULTS Relative to the controls, unmedicated PD patients showed significant value-independent risk aversion in the gain frame, which was normalized by levodopa. PD patients did not differ from controls in their valuation of gains relative to losses. However, across both tasks and regardless of medication, choices of the patients were more determined by expected values of the prospects than those of controls. CONCLUSION Dopamine deficiency in PD was associated with risk aversion, and levodopa promoted riskier choice in a value-independent manner. PD patients also showed an increased sensitivity to expected value, which was independent of levodopa and does not appear to result directly from dopamine deficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariya V Cherkasova
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.
| | - Jeffrey C Corrow
- Human Vision and Eye Movement Laboratory, Departments of Medicine (Neurology), Ophthalmology and Visual Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Alisdair Taylor
- Human Vision and Eye Movement Laboratory, Departments of Medicine (Neurology), Ophthalmology and Visual Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Shanna C Yeung
- Human Vision and Eye Movement Laboratory, Departments of Medicine (Neurology), Ophthalmology and Visual Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Jacob L Stubbs
- Human Vision and Eye Movement Laboratory, Departments of Medicine (Neurology), Ophthalmology and Visual Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Martin J McKeown
- Department of Medicine (Neurology), University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada; Pacific Parkinson's Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Silke Appel-Cresswell
- Department of Medicine (Neurology), University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada; Pacific Parkinson's Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - A Jon Stoessl
- Department of Medicine (Neurology), University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada; Pacific Parkinson's Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Jason J S Barton
- Human Vision and Eye Movement Laboratory, Departments of Medicine (Neurology), Ophthalmology and Visual Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
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