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Edwards DJ, McEnteggart C, Barnes-Holmes Y. A Functional Contextual Account of Background Knowledge in Categorization: Implications for Artificial General Intelligence and Cognitive Accounts of General Knowledge. Front Psychol 2022; 13:745306. [PMID: 35310283 PMCID: PMC8924495 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.745306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Psychology has benefited from an enormous wealth of knowledge about processes of cognition in relation to how the brain organizes information. Within the categorization literature, this behavior is often explained through theories of memory construction called exemplar theory and prototype theory which are typically based on similarity or rule functions as explanations of how categories emerge. Although these theories work well at modeling highly controlled stimuli in laboratory settings, they often perform less well outside of these settings, such as explaining the emergence of background knowledge processes. In order to explain background knowledge, we present a non-similarity-based post-Skinnerian theory of human language called Relational Frame Theory (RFT) which is rooted in a philosophical world view called functional contextualism (FC). This theory offers a very different interpretation of how categories emerge through the functions of behavior and through contextual cues, which may be of some benefit to existing categorization theories. Specifically, RFT may be able to offer a novel explanation of how background knowledge arises, and we provide some mathematical considerations in order to identify a formal model. Finally, we discuss much of this work within the broader context of general semantic knowledge and artificial intelligence research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darren J. Edwards
- Department of Public Health, Policy, and Social Sciences, Swansea University, Swansea, United Kingdom
| | - Ciara McEnteggart
- Department of Experimental Clinical and Health Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Yvonne Barnes-Holmes
- Department of Experimental Clinical and Health Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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Nie A, Jia X, Wang Y, Yuan S, Li M, Xiao Y, Liang P. ERP Characteristics of Inducing Rule Validity in Number Series Under Time Pressure. Percept Mot Skills 2021; 128:1877-1904. [PMID: 34218742 DOI: 10.1177/00315125211029908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
A great deal of research has been devoted to examining the neural mechanisms of inductive reasoning. However, the influences of rule validity and time pressure on numerical inductive reasoning remain unclear. In the current study, we aimed to examine the effects of these variables on the time course of rule identification in numerical inductive reasoning. We designed a 3 (task type: valid, invalid, and anomalous) × 2 (time pressure: with time pressure and without time pressure) within-subject experiment based on electroencephalographic event-related potentials (ERP). Behaviorally, we found significant effects of rule validity and time pressure on rule identification. Neurologically, we considered the elicited N200 ERP to reflect conflict detection and found it to be modulated by rule validity but not time pressure. We considered the induced P300 ERP to be primarily related to updating working memory, affected by both rule validity and time pressure. These findings have new implications for better understanding dynamic information processing within numerical inductive reasoning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aiqing Nie
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xiuqin Jia
- Department of Radiology, Beijing ChaoYang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yuli Wang
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Shangqing Yuan
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Learning and Cognition, School of Psychology, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Minye Li
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yueyue Xiao
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Peipeng Liang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Learning and Cognition, School of Psychology, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China
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Dasgupta I, Schulz E, Goodman ND, Gershman SJ. Remembrance of inferences past: Amortization in human hypothesis generation. Cognition 2018; 178:67-81. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2018.04.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2017] [Revised: 04/19/2018] [Accepted: 04/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Hayes BK, Heit E. Inductive reasoning 2.0. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. COGNITIVE SCIENCE 2017; 9:e1459. [PMID: 29283506 DOI: 10.1002/wcs.1459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2017] [Revised: 07/09/2017] [Accepted: 10/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Inductive reasoning entails using existing knowledge to make predictions about novel cases. The first part of this review summarizes key inductive phenomena and critically evaluates theories of induction. We highlight recent theoretical advances, with a special emphasis on the structured statistical approach, the importance of sampling assumptions in Bayesian models, and connectionist modeling. A number of new research directions in this field are identified including comparisons of inductive and deductive reasoning, the identification of common core processes in induction and memory tasks and induction involving category uncertainty. The implications of induction research for areas as diverse as complex decision-making and fear generalization are discussed. This article is categorized under: Psychology > Reasoning and Decision Making Psychology > Learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brett K Hayes
- Department of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Evan Heit
- School of Social Sciences, Humanities and Arts, University of California, Merced, California
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Influence of category coherence and type of base-rate acquisition on property generalization. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2017; 172:64-70. [PMID: 27940024 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2016.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2016] [Revised: 11/24/2016] [Accepted: 11/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Category coherence involves identifying similarities between social categories, such as jobs and hobbies, and is primarily used for generalizing or drawing inferences about their properties. Category coherence is also used for drawing inferences from explicit information, such as base rates. For example, people generalize the properties of groups or brands from multiple sources (e.g., survey results and the share market in periodicals). However, generalizing the properties of categories using explicit base-rate information may not always involve category coherence; rather, it may involve directly analyzing base-rate information. Therefore, this study attempts to distinguish between conditions in which people use category coherence and explicit base-rate information. Specifically, we proposed that people acquiring explicit base-rate knowledge-described as a percentage-would generalize a category's properties according to its base rate; however, for base-rate information acquired via direct observation, the inductive strength in generalizing properties would be greater for categories with high levels of coherence. Our results (Experiment 1 and Experiment 2) validated these two predictions. Finally, the interaction between category coherence and type of base-rate acquisition was discussed.
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Heit E, Nicholson SP. Missing the Party: Political Categorization and Reasoning in the Absence of Party Label Cues. Top Cogn Sci 2016; 8:697-714. [PMID: 27177872 DOI: 10.1111/tops.12206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2013] [Revised: 10/13/2014] [Accepted: 11/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
This research addressed theoretical approaches in political science arguing that the American electorate is either poorly informed or dependent on party label cues, by assessing performance on political judgment tasks when party label information is missing. The research materials were created from the results of a national opinion survey held during a national election. The experiments themselves were run on nationally representative samples of adults, identified from another national electoral survey. Participants saw profiles of simulated individuals, including information about demographics and issue positions, but omitting party labels. In Experiment 1, participants successfully judged the likelihood of party membership based on the profiles. In Experiment 2, participants successfully voted based on their party interests. The results were mediated by participants' political knowledge. Conclusions are drawn with respect to theories from political science and issues in cognitive science regarding categorization and reasoning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evan Heit
- School of Social Sciences, Humanities, and Arts, University of California, Merced
| | - Stephen P Nicholson
- School of Social Sciences, Humanities, and Arts, University of California, Merced
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Long C, Lei X, Chen J, Chang Y, Chen A, Li H. Event-related potential parameters of category and property violations during semantic category-based induction. Int J Psychophysiol 2015; 96:141-8. [PMID: 25889694 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2015.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2015] [Revised: 03/13/2015] [Accepted: 04/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies have failed to clarify the event-related potentials (ERPs) that occur in response to categorization and property inferences during category-based induction. The present study examined ERP differences among acceptable-induction conclusions, unrelated-category conclusions, and unrelated-property conclusions to dissociate categorization and property-inference processing during category-based induction. The results showed that: (a) conclusions with categories that were unrelated to the premise evoked greater frontal N2 amplitudes, smaller P3b amplitudes, and greater N400 amplitudes, compared to conclusions with categories that were logically related to the premise; and (b) conclusions with unrelated properties evoked larger late positive components (LPCs) during the 700-800ms time interval compared to conclusions with related properties. These results suggest that the N2-P3b-N400 effects reflect categorization violations, while the LPCs are related to property violations during category-based induction, therefore, the ERP responses to category-related and property-related processes are dissociated respectively during category-based induction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changquan Long
- Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality of MOE, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Xu Lei
- Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality of MOE, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Jie Chen
- Key Laboratory for Cognition and Human Behavior of Hunan Province, Hunan Normal University, 410081, China
| | - Yun Chang
- Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality of MOE, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Antao Chen
- Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality of MOE, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Hong Li
- Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality of MOE, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China; Research Centre for Brain Function and Psychological Science, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China.
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Hayes BK, Heit E, Rotello CM. Memory, reasoning, and categorization: parallels and common mechanisms. Front Psychol 2014; 5:529. [PMID: 24987380 PMCID: PMC4060413 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2014] [Accepted: 05/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Traditionally, memory, reasoning, and categorization have been treated as separate components of human cognition. We challenge this distinction, arguing that there is broad scope for crossover between the methods and theories developed for each task. The links between memory and reasoning are illustrated in a review of two lines of research. The first takes theoretical ideas (two-process accounts) and methodological tools (signal detection analysis, receiver operating characteristic curves) from memory research and applies them to important issues in reasoning research: relations between induction and deduction, and the belief bias effect. The second line of research introduces a task in which subjects make either memory or reasoning judgments for the same set of stimuli. Other than broader generalization for reasoning than memory, the results were similar for the two tasks, across a variety of experimental stimuli and manipulations. It was possible to simultaneously explain performance on both tasks within a single cognitive architecture, based on exemplar-based comparisons of similarity. The final sections explore evidence for empirical and processing links between inductive reasoning and categorization and between categorization and recognition. An important implication is that progress in all three of these fields will be expedited by further investigation of the many commonalities between these tasks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brett K. Hayes
- School of Psychology, University of New South WalesSydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Evan Heit
- School of Social Sciences, Humanities and Arts, University of CaliforniaMerced, CA, USA
| | - Caren M. Rotello
- Department of Psychology, University of MassachusettsAmherst, MA, USA
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