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Healey MK, Gibson BS, Uitvlugt MG, Gondoli DM. Recall initiation instructions influence how space and time interact in memory. Mem Cognit 2024; 52:852-871. [PMID: 38228993 DOI: 10.3758/s13421-023-01506-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2024]
Abstract
Recent work has examined the interaction between space and time in memory search, but there is still limited understanding of this relationship. Here, we test the hypothesis that individuals can exert control over how time and space interact in response to subtle differences in task instructions. To test this hypothesis, we analyzed two experiments where participants completed two immediate free recall tasks, a verbal task involving words presented at a central location and a spatial task involving squares presented at different locations. Some participants were free to recall the words or locations spontaneously in any order they preferred. In contrast, another group was subtly biased toward temporal information by instructions to begin recall from the last presented item before recalling the remaining items in any order they wished. Replicating recent work, all conditions showed clear evidence that recall was organized along both the temporal and the spatial dimensions. Extending this work, we found that the subtle change in recall instructions increased the reliance on temporal information in the spatial recall task. Correlational analyses suggest that spatial and temporal information do not compete when participants search memory spontaneously. However, they do compete when instructions favor temporal information. These findings highlight that individuals can exert some cognitive control over how associative dimensions interact during memory search and emphasize the importance of incorporating such processes into theoretical models.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Karl Healey
- Department of Psychology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA.
| | - Bradley S Gibson
- Department of Psychology, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, 46556, USA.
| | - Mitchell G Uitvlugt
- Department of Psychology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - Dawn M Gondoli
- Department of Psychology, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, 46556, USA
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Broitman AW, Swallow KM. The attentional boost effect in free recall dynamics. Mem Cognit 2024; 52:752-770. [PMID: 38082026 DOI: 10.3758/s13421-023-01499-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/18/2023] [Indexed: 05/23/2024]
Abstract
With the attentional boost effect (ABE), responding to a briefly presented target in a detection task enhances the encoding of other items presented at the same time. However, the effects of target detection on context memory for the event in which the stimulus appeared remain unclear. Here, we present findings from verbal free recall and recognition experiments that test the effects of target detection during encoding on temporal and relational aspects of context memory. Consistent with prior demonstrations of limited effects of target detection on context memory, in Experiment 1 there was no evidence that target detection influenced the likelihood of transitioning to items that were presented at similar times during encoding, or that were in the same encoding condition. These null effects were replicated in a second experiment, which added an old/new recognition and relational memory test. These results indicate that target detection during encoding has minimal effects on the formation of temporal associations between words in memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam W Broitman
- Department of Psychology, Cornell University, Uris Hall B107, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA.
- Cognitive Science Program, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA.
| | - Khena M Swallow
- Department of Psychology, Cornell University, Uris Hall B107, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
- Cognitive Science Program, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
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Mundorf AMD, Uitvlugt MG, Healey MK. Incidentally encoded temporal associations produce priming in implicit memory. Psychon Bull Rev 2024; 31:761-771. [PMID: 37715057 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-023-02351-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/24/2023] [Indexed: 09/17/2023]
Abstract
A key assumption of some leading memory theories is that information about the relative order of events is automatically encoded whenever memories are formed and automatically retrieved whenever events are remembered. This information is often used to guide memory search: Remembering one event tends to trigger the retrieval of other events previously experienced nearby in time (temporal contiguity effect). The retrieved context framework attributes this temporal contiguity effect to automatic encoding and retrieval processes, predicting temporal contiguity even in incidental encoding and implicit retrieval. There is strong evidence of temporal contiguity following incidental encoding, but does the prediction hold for implicit retrieval? In this experiment, we tested the framework's predictions for recall and repetition priming. Across 30 trials, undergraduates ( n = 603 ) read a series of words aloud as they appeared onscreen. In each trial, two words were repeated (cue and target), initially separated by |lag | = 1, 2, or 5. On their second presentation, the cue word was presented first, immediately followed by the target word. We found a strong temporal contiguity effect in a surprise free recall test, replicating previous work with explicit retrieval. For implicit retrieval, we compared repetition priming (how quickly subjects began reading a word on its first versus second presentation) for cue and target words. Repeating a cue word enhanced repetition priming for its associated target word, and this effect varied with the initial lag between the cue and target. These results support theories that assume temporal information is encoded and retrieved automatically.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abigail M D Mundorf
- Department of Psychology, Michigan State University, 316 Physics Road, East Lansing, MI, USA.
| | - Mitchell G Uitvlugt
- Department of Psychology, Michigan State University, 316 Physics Road, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - M Karl Healey
- Department of Psychology, Michigan State University, 316 Physics Road, East Lansing, MI, USA.
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Sadeh T, Moscovitch M. Retrieval of temporal structure at recall can occur automatically. Cognition 2024; 242:105647. [PMID: 37857055 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2023.105647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2023] [Revised: 10/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/10/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023]
Abstract
Temporal-structure, namely, the order in which events unfold over time, is one of the fundamental principles of episodic memory organization. A seminal empirical demonstration of the prominence of temporal structure in memory organization is the Temporal Contiguity Effect (TCE), whereby the proximity between two items at encoding predicts the likelihood of those two items being retrieved consecutively during recall. Recent studies have found that TCE occurs under a wide variety of conditions in which strategic control processes at encoding are reduced or even eliminated. This suggests that the encoding of temporal structure occurs automatically. Extending these findings, in the current study we asked whether the retrieval of temporal structure, as reflected by indices of the TCE, is influenced by strategic control processes at retrieval. To manipulate participants' ability to rely on strategic control processes, we compared standard recall performance (Full Attention condition) to a condition in which attention was divided between recall and a concurrent task (Divided Attention condition), which has been shown to disrupt such control processes. Across two experiments-one with standard encoding conditions and one with continual distraction during encoding-we found no differences in any index of the TCE between the two conditions. These results are all the more striking considering that in both experiments, dividing attention negatively affected overall recall performance compared to the Full Attention condition. Thus, while recall performance is reduced when disrupting strategic processes, the ability to use temporal structure to drive recall is not affected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Talya Sadeh
- The Department of Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel; Department of Psychology, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel; The School of Brain Sciences and Cognition, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel.
| | - Morris Moscovitch
- Rotman Research Institute, Baycrest Centre, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Canada
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Ward G, Tan L. The role of rehearsal and reminding in the recall of categorized word lists. Cogn Psychol 2023; 143:101563. [PMID: 37141672 DOI: 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2023.101563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/25/2023] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Most theories of free recall emphasize the importance of retrieval in explaining temporal and semantic regularities in recall; rehearsal mechanisms are often absent or limit rehearsal to a subset of what was last rehearsed. However, in three experiments using the overt rehearsal method, we show clear evidence that just-presented items act as retrieval cues during encoding (study-phase retrieval) with prior related items rehearsed despite well over a dozen intervening items. Experiment 1 examined free recall of categorized and uncategorized lists of 32 words. In Experiments 2 and 3, we presented categorized lists of 24, 48, and 64 words for free recall or cued recall, with the category exemplars blocked in successive list positions (Experiment 2) or randomized throughout the list (Experiment 3). The probability of rehearsing a prior word was affected by its semantic similarity to the just-presented item, and the frequency and recency of its prior rehearsals. These rehearsal data suggest alternative interpretations to well-known recall phenomena. With randomized designs, the serial position curves were reinterpreted by when words were last rehearsed (which contributed to the list length effects), and semantic clustering and temporal contiguity effects at output were reinterpreted by whether words were co-rehearsed during study. The contrast with the blocked designs suggests that recall is sensitive to the relative (not absolute) recency of targeted list items. We discuss the benefits of incorporating rehearsal machinery into computational models of episodic memory, and suggest that the same retrieval processes that generate the recalls are used to generate the rehearsals.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lydia Tan
- University of East London, United Kingdom.
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Abstract
Memory tends to be better when items are processed for their meaning (deep processing) rather than their perceptual features (shallow processing). This levels of processing (LOP) effect is well-replicated and has been applied in many settings, but the mechanisms involved are still not well understood. The temporal contiguity effect (TCE), the finding that recalling one event often triggers recall of another event experienced nearby in time, also predicts memory performance. This effect has given rise to several competing theories with specific contiguity-generating mechanisms related to how items are processed. Therefore, studying how LOP and the TCE interact may shed light on the mechanisms underlying both effects. However, it is unknown how LOP and the TCE interact-various theories make differing predictions. In this preregistered study, we tested predictions of three theoretical explanations: accounts which assume temporal information is automatically encoded, accounts based on a trade-off between item and order information, and accounts which emphasize the importance of strategic control processes. Participants completed an immediate free recall task where they either engaged in deep processing, shallow processing, or no additional task while studying each word. Recall and the TCE were highest for no-task lists and greater for deep than shallow processing. Our results support theories which assume temporal associations are automatically encoded and those which emphasize strategic control processes. Both perspectives should be considered in theory development. These findings also suggest temporal information may contribute to better recall under deeper processing with implications for determining which situations benefit from deep processing.
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Murphy DH, Castel AD. The dynamics of memory for United States presidents in younger and older adults. Memory 2021; 29:1232-1244. [PMID: 34486936 DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2021.1974050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACTSerial position effects are often observed within the free recall of unassociated words but also when recalling items from a semantic category like U.S. presidents. We investigated the dynamics of recall for U.S. presidents in younger and older adults to examine potential age-related differences in the organisation of retrieval from semantic long-term memory. Older adults recalled more presidents than younger adults and also demonstrated dual serial position effects such that, in addition to overall serial position effects, primacy (e.g., Eisenhower) and recency presidents (e.g., Obama) within older adults' lifetime were better recalled than presidents from the middle of their lives (e.g., Ford). Additionally, participants initiated recall with the most distinct presidents (highly familiar or memorable presidents like Washington, Obama, Trump), and conditional-response probabilities revealed that presidents from similar eras were recalled in close proximity, indicating that the retrieval of distinct presidents can facilitate memory for presidents from a similar era. Collectively, we demonstrate the potential interplay of the mechanisms that influence the organisation of retrieval such that distinctiveness and temporal contiguity effects may simultaneously impact recall. Specifically, semantic and temporal-contextual associations can drive semantic autobiographical memory and people likely organise retrieval from long-term memory according to familiarity and distinctiveness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dillon H Murphy
- Department of Psychology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Alan D Castel
- Department of Psychology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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Lohnas LJ, Healey MK. The role of context in episodic memory: Behavior and neurophysiology. PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING AND MOTIVATION 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.plm.2021.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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