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Sui J, Rotshtein P, Lu Z, Chechlacz M. Causal Roles of Ventral and Dorsal Neural Systems for Automatic and Control Self-Reference Processing: A Function Lesion Mapping Study. J Clin Med 2024; 13:4170. [PMID: 39064210 DOI: 10.3390/jcm13144170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2024] [Revised: 07/10/2024] [Accepted: 07/15/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Background: Humans perceive and interpret the world through the lens of self-reference processes, typically facilitating enhanced performance for the task at hand. However, this research has predominantly emphasized the automatic facet of self-reference processing, overlooking how it interacts with control processes affecting everyday situations. Methods: We investigated this relationship between automatic and control self-reference processing in neuropsychological patients performing self-face perception tasks and the Birmingham frontal task measuring executive functions. Results: Principal component analysis across tasks revealed two components: one loaded on familiarity/orientation judgments reflecting automatic self-reference processing, and the other linked to the cross task and executive function indicating control processing requirements. Voxel-based morphometry and track-wise lesion-mapping analyses showed that impairments in automatic self-reference were associated with reduced grey matter in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and right inferior temporal gyrus, and white matter damage in the right inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus. Deficits in executive control were linked to reduced grey matter in the bilateral inferior parietal lobule and left anterior insula, and white matter disconnections in the left superior longitudinal fasciculus and arcuate fasciculus. Conclusions: The causal evidence suggests that automatic and control facets of self-reference processes are subserved by distinct yet integrated ventral prefrontal-temporal and dorsal frontal-parietal networks, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Sui
- School of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 3FX, UK
| | - Pia Rotshtein
- Neuroimaging Research Unit, University of Haifa, Haifa 3498838, Israel
| | - Zhuoen Lu
- School of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 3FX, UK
| | - Magdalena Chechlacz
- Centre for Human Brain Health, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
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2
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Jalalian P, Svensson S, Golubickis M, Sharma Y, Macrae CN. Stimulus valence moderates self-learning. Cogn Emot 2024:1-14. [PMID: 38576360 DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2024.2331817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2022] [Accepted: 03/11/2024] [Indexed: 04/06/2024]
Abstract
Self-relevance has been demonstrated to impair instrumental learning. Compared to unfamiliar symbols associated with a friend, analogous stimuli linked with the self are learned more slowly. What is not yet understood, however, is whether this effect extends beyond arbitrary stimuli to material with intrinsically meaningful properties. Take, for example, stimulus valence an established moderator of self-bias. Does the desirability of to-be-learned material influence self-learning? Here, in conjunction with computational modelling (i.e. Reinforcement Learning Drift Diffusion Model analysis), a probabilistic selection task was used to establish if and how stimulus valence (i.e. desirable/undesirable posters) impacts the acquisition of knowledge relating to object-ownership (i.e. owned-by-self vs. owned-by-friend). Several interesting results were observed. First, undesirable posters were learned more rapidly for self compared to friend, an effect that was reversed for desirable posters. Second, learning rates were accompanied by associated differences in reward sensitivity toward desirable and undesirable choice selections as a function of ownership. Third, decisional caution was greater for self-relevant (vs. friend relevant) responses. Collectively, these findings inform understanding of self-function and how valence and stimulus relevance mutually influence probabilistic learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parnian Jalalian
- School of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland, UK
| | - Saga Svensson
- School of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland, UK
| | - Marius Golubickis
- School of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland, UK
| | - Yadvi Sharma
- School of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland, UK
| | - C Neil Macrae
- School of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland, UK
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3
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Muth FV, Ebert S, Kunde W. You do you: susceptibility of temporal binding to self-relevance. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2024; 88:1007-1022. [PMID: 38170225 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-023-01906-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2022] [Accepted: 11/23/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
The self-prioritization effect suggests that self-relevant information has a processing advantage over information that is not directly associated with the self. In consequence, reaction times are faster and accuracy rates higher when reacting to self-associated stimuli rather than to other-related stimuli (Sui et al., Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 38:1105-1117, 2012). This spurs the assumption that self-associated action-effects should also be perceived earlier than other-related outcomes. One way to measure this is temporal binding. Previous research indeed showed that the perceived temporal interval between actions and self-associated outcomes was reduced compared to friend- and other-associated outcomes. However, the employed method (interval estimations) and several experimental design choices make it impossible to discern whether the perceived shortening of the interval between a keypress and a self-relevant outcome is due to a perceptual shift of the action or of the action-effect or both. Thus, we conducted four experiments to assess whether temporal binding can indeed be modulated by self-relevance and if so where this perceptual bias is located. The results did not support stronger temporal binding for self- vs other-related action-effects. We discuss these results against the backdrop of the attentional basis of self-prioritization and propose directions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felicitas V Muth
- Department of Psychology, Julius-Maximilians-University of Würzburg, Röntgenring 11, 97070, Würzburg, Germany.
| | - Sophia Ebert
- Department of Psychology, Julius-Maximilians-University of Würzburg, Röntgenring 11, 97070, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Wilfried Kunde
- Department of Psychology, Julius-Maximilians-University of Würzburg, Röntgenring 11, 97070, Würzburg, Germany
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4
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van Dooren R, Jongkees BJ, Sellaro R. Self-prioritization in working memory gating. Atten Percept Psychophys 2024:10.3758/s13414-024-02869-8. [PMID: 38491316 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-024-02869-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/11/2024] [Indexed: 03/18/2024]
Abstract
Working memory (WM) involves a dynamic interplay between temporary maintenance and updating of goal-relevant information. The balance between maintenance and updating is regulated by an input-gating mechanism that determines which information should enter WM (gate opening) and which should be kept out (gate closing). We investigated whether updating and gate opening/closing are differentially sensitive to the kind of information to be encoded and maintained in WM. Specifically, since the social salience of a stimulus is known to affect cognitive performance, we investigated if self-relevant information differentially impacts maintenance, updating, or gate opening/closing. Participants first learned to associate two neutral shapes with two social labels (i.e., "you" vs. "stranger"), respectively. Subsequently they performed the reference-back paradigm, a well-established WM task that disentangles WM updating, gate opening, and gate closing. Crucially, the shapes previously associated with the self or a stranger served as target stimuli in the reference-back task. We replicated the typical finding of a repetition benefit when consecutive trials require opening the gate to WM. In Study 1 (N = 45) this advantage disappeared when self-associated stimuli were recently gated into WM and immediately needed to be replaced by stranger-associated stimuli. However, this was not replicated in a larger sample (Study 2; N = 90), where a repetition benefit always occurred on consecutive gate-opening trials. Overall, our results do not provide evidence that the self-relevance of stimuli modulates component processes of WM. We discuss possible reasons for this null finding, including the importance of continuous reinstatement and task-relevance of the shape-label associations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roel van Dooren
- Cognitive Psychology Unit, Institute of Psychology and Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Bryant J Jongkees
- Cognitive Psychology Unit, Institute of Psychology and Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Roberta Sellaro
- Department of Developmental Psychology and Socialization and Padova Neuroscience Center, University of Padova, Padova, Italy.
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5
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Golubickis M, Tan LBG, Jalalian P, Falbén JK, Macrae NC. Brief mindfulness-based meditation enhances the speed of learning following positive prediction errors. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2024:17470218241228859. [PMID: 38229479 DOI: 10.1177/17470218241228859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2024]
Abstract
Recent research has demonstrated that mindfulness-based meditation facilitates basic aspects of cognition, including memory and attention. Further developing this line of inquiry, here we considered the possibility that similar effects may extend to another core psychological process-instrumental learning. To explore this matter, in combination with a probabilistic selection task, computational modelling (i.e., reinforcement drift diffusion model analysis) was adopted to establish whether and how brief mindfulness-based meditation influences learning under conditions of uncertainty (i.e., choices based on the perceived likelihood of positive and negative outcomes). Three effects were observed. Compared with performance in the control condition (i.e., no meditation), mindfulness-based meditation (1) accelerated the rate of learning following positive prediction errors; (2) elicited a preference for the exploration (vs. exploitation) of choice selections; and (3) increased response caution. Collectively, these findings elucidate the pathways through which brief meditative experiences impact learning and decision-making, with implications for interventions designed to debias aspects of social-cognitive functioning using mindfulness-based meditation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lucy B G Tan
- Clinical Psychology, School of Social and Health Sciences, James Cook University, Singapore
| | | | - Johanna K Falbén
- Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Neil C Macrae
- The School of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
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6
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Amodeo L, Nijhof AD, Brass M, Wiersema JR. The relevance of familiarity in the context of self-related information processing. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2023; 76:2823-2836. [PMID: 36714977 DOI: 10.1177/17470218231154884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Humans are inclined to preferentially process self-related content, referred to as the "self-bias." Different paradigms have been used to study this effect. However, not all paradigms included a familiar other condition (but rather an unfamiliar other condition), needed to differentiate self-specific effects from the impact of familiarity. The primary goal of our study was to test the suitability for studying the self-bias of two paradigms that provide robust measures of salience effects-that is, the Repetition Blindness (RB) effect and the Emotional Stroop (ES) interference-while addressing the familiarity confound. We further explored whether self-bias effects were related to autism symptomatology, as a reduced self-bias in autism has been reported in previous research. In an online procedure, 82 adults performed an RB task and an ES task in a counterbalanced order, while being presented with both self- and familiar other-related stimuli. Results of both frequentist and Bayesian analyses did not provide evidence in favour of a specific self-bias on either task: we found no significant modulation of the RB effect, nor of the ES interference, for the own versus a close other's name. Moreover, no link with autism symptomatology was found. Tackling a crucial shortcoming from earlier studies, our investigation raises awareness on the importance of accounting for familiarity when investigating self-related processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Letizia Amodeo
- Department of Experimental Clinical and Health Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- EXPLORA, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Annabel D Nijhof
- Department of Experimental Clinical and Health Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- EXPLORA, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Marcel Brass
- EXPLORA, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- Berlin School of Mind and Brain, Department of Psychology, Humboldt University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jan R Wiersema
- Department of Experimental Clinical and Health Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- EXPLORA, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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7
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Jalalian P, Golubickis M, Sharma Y, Neil Macrae C. Learning about me and you: Only deterministic stimulus associations elicit self-prioritization. Conscious Cogn 2023; 116:103602. [PMID: 37952404 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2023.103602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2023] [Revised: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 11/03/2023] [Indexed: 11/14/2023]
Abstract
Self-relevant material has been shown to be prioritized over stimuli relating to others (e.g., friend, stranger), generating benefits in attention, memory, and decision-making. What is not yet understood, however, is whether the conditions under which self-related knowledge is acquired impacts the emergence of self-bias. To address this matter, here we used an associative-learning paradigm in combination with a stimulus-classification task to explore the effects of different learning experiences (i.e., deterministic vs. probabilistic) on self-prioritization. The results revealed an effect of prior learning on task performance, with self-prioritization only emerging when participants acquired target-related associations (i.e., self vs. friend) under conditions of certainty (vs. uncertainty). A further computational (i.e., drift diffusion model) analysis indicated that differences in the efficiency of stimulus processing (i.e., rate of information uptake) underpinned this self-prioritization effect. The implications of these findings for accounts of self-function are considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parnian Jalalian
- School of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, King's College, Aberdeen, Scotland, UK.
| | - Marius Golubickis
- School of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, King's College, Aberdeen, Scotland, UK
| | - Yadvi Sharma
- School of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, King's College, Aberdeen, Scotland, UK
| | - C Neil Macrae
- School of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, King's College, Aberdeen, Scotland, UK
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8
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Golubickis M, Macrae CN. Self-Prioritization Reconsidered: Scrutinizing Three Claims. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2023; 18:876-886. [PMID: 36356105 PMCID: PMC10336703 DOI: 10.1177/17456916221131273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/20/2023]
Abstract
Such is the power of self-relevance, it has been argued that even arbitrary stimuli (e.g., shapes, lines, colors) with no prior personal connection are privileged during information processing following their association with the self (i.e., self-prioritization). This prioritization effect, moreover, is deemed to be stimulus driven (i.e., automatic), grounded in perception, and supported by specialized processing operations. Here, however, we scrutinize these claims and challenge this viewpoint. Although self-relevance unquestionably influences information processing, we contend that, at least at present, there is limited evidence to suggest that the prioritization of arbitrary self-related stimuli is compulsory, penetrates perception, and is underpinned by activity in a dedicated neural network. Rather, self-prioritization appears to be a task-dependent product of ordinary cognitive processes.
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9
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Huang Y, Xie M, Liu Y, Zhang X, Jiang L, Bao H, Qin P, Han J. Brain State Relays Self-Processing and Heartbeat-Evoked Cortical Responses. Brain Sci 2023; 13:brainsci13050832. [PMID: 37239303 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci13050832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Revised: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The self has been proposed to be grounded in interoceptive processing, with heartbeat-evoked cortical activity as a neurophysiological marker of this processing. However, inconsistent findings have been reported on the relationship between heartbeat-evoked cortical responses and self-processing (including exteroceptive- and mental-self-processing). In this review, we examine previous research on the association between self-processing and heartbeat-evoked cortical responses and highlight the divergent temporal-spatial characteristics and brain regions involved. We propose that the brain state relays the interaction between self-processing and heartbeat-evoked cortical responses and thus accounts for the inconsistency. The brain state, spontaneous brain activity which highly and continuously changes in a nonrandom way, serves as the foundation upon which the brain functions and was proposed as a point in an extremely high-dimensional space. To elucidate our assumption, we provide reviews on the interactions between dimensions of brain state with both self-processing and heartbeat-evoked cortical responses. These interactions suggest the relay of self-processing and heartbeat-evoked cortical responses by brain state. Finally, we discuss possible approaches to investigate whether and how the brain state impacts the self-heart interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Huang
- Key Laboratory of Brain, Cognition and Education Sciences, Ministry of Education, School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Psychological Application and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China
| | - Musi Xie
- Key Laboratory of Brain, Cognition and Education Sciences, Ministry of Education, School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Psychological Application and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China
| | - Yunhe Liu
- Key Laboratory of Brain, Cognition and Education Sciences, Ministry of Education, School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Psychological Application and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China
| | - Xinyu Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Brain, Cognition and Education Sciences, Ministry of Education, School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Psychological Application and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China
| | - Liubei Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Brain, Cognition and Education Sciences, Ministry of Education, School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Psychological Application and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China
| | - Han Bao
- Key Laboratory of Brain, Cognition and Education Sciences, Ministry of Education, School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Psychological Application and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China
| | - Pengmin Qin
- Key Laboratory of Brain, Cognition and Education Sciences, Ministry of Education, School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Psychological Application and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China
- Pazhou Lab, Guangzhou 510330, China
| | - Junrong Han
- Key Laboratory of Brain, Cognition and Education Science, Ministry of Education China, Institute for Brain Research and Rehabilitation and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China
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10
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Sui J, He X, Golubickis M, Svensson SL, Neil Macrae C. Electrophysiological correlates of self-prioritization. Conscious Cogn 2023; 108:103475. [PMID: 36709725 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2023.103475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2022] [Revised: 01/06/2023] [Accepted: 01/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Personally relevant stimuli exert a powerful influence on social cognition. What is not yet fully understood, however, is how early in the processing stream self-relevance influences decisional operations. Here we used a shape-label matching task in conjunction with electroencephalography and computational modeling to explore this issue. A theoretically important pattern of results was observed. First, a standard self-prioritization effect emerged indicating that responses to self-related items were faster and more accurate than responses to other-related stimuli. Second, a hierarchical drift diffusion model analysis revealed that this effect was underpinned by the enhanced uptake of evidence from self-related stimuli. Third, self-other discrimination during matching trials was observed at both early posterior N1 and late centro-parietal P3 components. Fourth, whereas the N1 was associated with the rate of information accumulation during decisional processing, P3 activity was linked with the evidential requirements of response selection. These findings elucidate the electrophysiological correlates of self-prioritization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Sui
- School of Psychology, King's College, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland, UK.
| | - Xun He
- Department of Psychology, Bournemouth University, Poole, England, UK
| | - Marius Golubickis
- School of Psychology, King's College, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland, UK
| | - Saga L Svensson
- School of Psychology, King's College, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland, UK
| | - C Neil Macrae
- School of Psychology, King's College, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland, UK
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11
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Abstract
In the last years, it has become general consensus that actions change our time perception. Performing an action to elicit a specific event seems to lead to a systematic underestimation of the interval between action and effect, a phenomenon termed temporal (or previously intentional) binding. Temporal binding has been closely associated with sense of agency, our perceived control over our actions and our environment, and because of its robust behavioral effects has indeed been widely utilized as an implicit correlate of sense of agency. The most robust and clear temporal binding effects are typically found via Libet clock paradigms. In the present study, we investigate a crucial methodological confound in these paradigms that provides an alternative explanation for temporal binding effects: a redirection of attentional resources in two-event sequences (as in classical operant conditions) versus singular events (as in classical baseline conditions). Our results indicate that binding effects in Libet clock paradigms may be based to a large degree on such attentional processes, irrespective of intention or action-effect sequences. Thus, these findings challenge many of the previously drawn conclusions and interpretations with regard to actions and time perception.
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12
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Svensson S, Golubickis M, Johnson S, Falben J, Macrae N. EXPRESS: Self-Relevance and the Activation of Attentional Networks. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2022; 76:1120-1130. [PMID: 35758656 PMCID: PMC10119901 DOI: 10.1177/17470218221112238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Recent theoretical accounts maintain that core components of attentional functioning are preferentially tuned to self-relevant information. Evidence in support of this viewpoint is equivocal, however, with research overly reliant on personally significant (i.e., familiar) stimulus inputs (e.g., faces, forenames) and a diverse range of methodologies. Addressing these limitations, here we utilized arbitrary items (i.e., geometric shapes) and administered the Attention Network Test (ANT) to establish the extent to which self-relevance (vs. friend-relevance) moderates the three subsystems of attentional functioning - alerting, orienting, and executive control. The results revealed that only executive control was sensitive to the meaning of the stimuli, such that conflict resolution was enhanced following the presentation of self-associated compared to friend-associated shapes (i.e., cues). Probing the origin of this effect, a further computational analysis (i.e., Shrinking Spotlight Diffusion Model analysis) indicated that self-relevance facilitated the narrowing of visual attention. These findings highlight when and how the personal significance of otherwise trivial material modulates attentional processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saga Svensson
- School of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland, UK 1019
| | - Marius Golubickis
- School of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland, UK 1019
| | - Sam Johnson
- School of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland, UK 1019
| | - Johanna Falben
- Department of Psychology, University of Warwick, Coventry, England, UK 2707
| | - Neil Macrae
- School of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland, UK 1019
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