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Abstract
Nitroxides, also known as nitroxyl radicals, are long-lived or stable radicals with the general structure R1R2N-O•. The spin distribution over the nitroxide N and O atoms contributes to the thermodynamic stability of these radicals. The presence of bulky N-substituents R1 and R2 prevents nitroxide radical dimerization, ensuring their kinetic stability. Despite their reactivity toward various transient C radicals, some nitroxides can be easily stored under air at room temperature. Furthermore, nitroxides can be oxidized to oxoammonium salts (R1R2N═O+) or reduced to anions (R1R2N-O-), enabling them to act as valuable oxidants or reductants depending on their oxidation state. Therefore, they exhibit interesting reactivity across all three oxidation states. Due to these fascinating properties, nitroxides find extensive applications in diverse fields such as biochemistry, medicinal chemistry, materials science, and organic synthesis. This review focuses on the versatile applications of nitroxides in organic synthesis. For their use in other important fields, we will refer to several review articles. The introductory part provides a brief overview of the history of nitroxide chemistry. Subsequently, the key methods for preparing nitroxides are discussed, followed by an examination of their structural diversity and physical properties. The main portion of this review is dedicated to oxidation reactions, wherein parent nitroxides or their corresponding oxoammonium salts serve as active species. It will be demonstrated that various functional groups (such as alcohols, amines, enolates, and alkanes among others) can be efficiently oxidized. These oxidations can be carried out using nitroxides as catalysts in combination with various stoichiometric terminal oxidants. By reducing nitroxides to their corresponding anions, they become effective reducing reagents with intriguing applications in organic synthesis. Nitroxides possess the ability to selectively react with transient radicals, making them useful for terminating radical cascade reactions by forming alkoxyamines. Depending on their structure, alkoxyamines exhibit weak C-O bonds, allowing for the thermal generation of C radicals through reversible C-O bond cleavage. Such thermally generated C radicals can participate in various radical transformations, as discussed toward the end of this review. Furthermore, the application of this strategy in natural product synthesis will be presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dirk Leifert
- Organisch-Chemisches Institut, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität, Corrensstrasse 40, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Armido Studer
- Organisch-Chemisches Institut, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität, Corrensstrasse 40, 48149 Münster, Germany
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Godino-Ojer M, Morales-Torres S, Maldonado-Hódar FJ, Pérez-Mayoral E. Towards selective synthesis of quinoxalines by using transition metals-doped carbon aerogels. Catal Today 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cattod.2023.01.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
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Ahmadpour Kermani S, Salari S, Ghasemi Nejad Almani P. Comparison of antifungal and cytotoxicity activities of titanium dioxide and zinc oxide nanoparticles with amphotericin B against different Candida species: In vitro evaluation. J Clin Lab Anal 2020; 35:e23577. [PMID: 32920952 PMCID: PMC7843264 DOI: 10.1002/jcla.23577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2020] [Revised: 08/22/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Candida species are known to cause serious fungal infections that produce cutaneous, mucosal, and systemic infections. Nowadays, mortality and morbidity candidiasis in immunocompromised patients have increased. Nanotechnology is a new world-known technology and includes particles ranging from about 1 to 100 nanometers. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the antifungal and cytotoxicity activities of titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2-NPs) and zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) compared to amphotericin B (AmB) on different Candida spp in in vitro conditions. METHODS In the present study, susceptibility of different Candida species to TiO2-NPs and ZnO-NPs compared to AmB was determined by broth microdilution (BMD) and agar well diffusion methods. Cytotoxicity of TiO2-NPs and ZnO-NPs and amphotericin B was measured by MTT (3-(4, 5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-Diphenyltetrazolium Bromide) assay. RESULTS The results indicated that the TiO2-NPs and ZnO-NPs showed antifungal activities against pathogenic Candida spp. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC) of TiO2-NP ranges against Candida spp. were 128-256 µg/mL and 256-512 µg/mL, respectively. The MIC and MFC values of ZnO-NPs were 64-128 µg/mL and 256-512 µg/mL, respectively. However, MICs and MFCs of AmB were 8-16 µg/mL and 16-32 µg/mL, respectively. The MTT assay results showed that the CC50% belonged to ZnO-NPs 706.2 μg/mL, for TiO2-NPs 862.1 μg/mL, and for AmB 70.19 μg/mL, respectively. CONCLUSION Our findings showed that TiO2-NPs and ZnO-NPs had antifungal effects against all Candida species, yet the antifungal properties of TiO2-NPs and ZnO-NPs were significantly less than those of AmB. The CC50% of AmB was significantly lower than ZnO-NPs and TiO2-NPs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Samira Salari
- Medical Mycology and Bacteriology Research Center, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
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Patil MU, Shinde SK, Patil SP, Patil SS. [BBSA-DBN][HSO4]: a novel –SO3H functionalized Bronsted acidic ionic liquid for easy access of quinoxalines. RESEARCH ON CHEMICAL INTERMEDIATES 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s11164-020-04227-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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Zhang H, Shen J, Yang Z, Cui X. PIDA-mediated intramolecular oxidative C-N bond formation for the direct synthesis of quinoxalines from enaminones. RSC Adv 2019; 9:7718-7722. [PMID: 35521175 PMCID: PMC9061175 DOI: 10.1039/c9ra01200a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2019] [Accepted: 02/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
A intramolecular oxidative C(sp2)-N bond formation mediated by hypervalent iodine(iii) to obtain quinoxalines from readily available N-(2-acetaminophenyl)enaminones was developed. A tandem process involving PIDA-mediated intramolecular condensation cyclization and a subsequent elimination was postulated, which was highly efficient and metal-free under mild conditions. Moreover, flexible structural modifications of quinoxalines bearing carbonyl groups are of interest for further transformations as building blocks in organic synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Zhang
- Engineering Research Center of Molecular Medicine of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Fujian Molecular Medicine, Key Laboratory of Xiamen Marine and Gene Drugs, School of Biomedical Sciences, Huaqiao University Xiamen 361021 P. R. China
| | - Jinhai Shen
- Engineering Research Center of Molecular Medicine of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Fujian Molecular Medicine, Key Laboratory of Xiamen Marine and Gene Drugs, School of Biomedical Sciences, Huaqiao University Xiamen 361021 P. R. China
| | - Zhenhui Yang
- Engineering Research Center of Molecular Medicine of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Fujian Molecular Medicine, Key Laboratory of Xiamen Marine and Gene Drugs, School of Biomedical Sciences, Huaqiao University Xiamen 361021 P. R. China
| | - Xiuling Cui
- Engineering Research Center of Molecular Medicine of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Fujian Molecular Medicine, Key Laboratory of Xiamen Marine and Gene Drugs, School of Biomedical Sciences, Huaqiao University Xiamen 361021 P. R. China
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Saha B, Mitra B, Brahmin D, Sinha B, Ghosh P. 2-Iodo benzoic acid: An unconventional precursor for the one pot multi-component synthesis of quinoxaline using organo Cu (II) catalyst. Tetrahedron Lett 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2018.08.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Lang X, Zhao J. Integrating TEMPO and Its Analogues with Visible-Light Photocatalysis. Chem Asian J 2018; 13:599-613. [DOI: 10.1002/asia.201701765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2017] [Revised: 01/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xianjun Lang
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences; Wuhan University; Wuhan 430072 China
| | - Jincai Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Photochemistry; Institute of Chemistry; Chinese Academy of Sciences; Beijing 100190 China
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Hazarika D, Phukan P. Metal free synthesis of quinoxalines from alkynes via a cascade process using TsNBr2. Tetrahedron 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2017.01.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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Guntreddi T, Vanjari R, Kumar S, Singh R, Singh N, Kumar P, Singh KN. Elemental sulfur mediated synthesis of benzoxazoles, benzothiazoles and quinoxalines via decarboxylative coupling of 2-hydroxy/mercapto/amino-anilines with cinnamic acids. RSC Adv 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c6ra17491d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
A practical method has been developed for the synthesis of 2-benzylbenzoxazoles and 2-benzylbenzothiazoles using sulfur mediated decarboxylative coupling of cinnamic acids with 2-hydroxyanilines and 2-mercaptoanilines respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tirumaleswararao Guntreddi
- Department of Chemistry (Centre of Advanced Study)
- Institute of Science
- Banaras Hindu University
- Varanasi 221005
- India
| | - Rajeshwer Vanjari
- Department of Chemistry (Centre of Advanced Study)
- Institute of Science
- Banaras Hindu University
- Varanasi 221005
- India
| | - Saurabh Kumar
- Department of Chemistry (Centre of Advanced Study)
- Institute of Science
- Banaras Hindu University
- Varanasi 221005
- India
| | - Rahul Singh
- Department of Chemistry (Centre of Advanced Study)
- Institute of Science
- Banaras Hindu University
- Varanasi 221005
- India
| | - Neetu Singh
- Department of Chemistry (Centre of Advanced Study)
- Institute of Science
- Banaras Hindu University
- Varanasi 221005
- India
| | - Promod Kumar
- Department of Chemistry (Centre of Advanced Study)
- Institute of Science
- Banaras Hindu University
- Varanasi 221005
- India
| | - Krishna Nand Singh
- Department of Chemistry (Centre of Advanced Study)
- Institute of Science
- Banaras Hindu University
- Varanasi 221005
- India
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Jeena V, Sithebe S, Robinson RS. Copper-Catalyzed Synthesis of Valuable Heterocyclic Compounds Using a Tandem Oxidation Process Approach. SYNTHETIC COMMUN 2015. [DOI: 10.1080/00397911.2015.1022660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Vineet Jeena
- School of Chemistry and Physics, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Scottsville, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa
| | - Siphamandla Sithebe
- School of Chemistry and Physics, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Scottsville, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa
| | - Ross S. Robinson
- School of Chemistry and Physics, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Scottsville, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa
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Kamal A, Babu KS, Hussaini SA, Mahesh R, Alarifi A. Amberlite IR-120H, an efficient and recyclable solid phase catalyst for the synthesis of quinoxalines: a greener approach. Tetrahedron Lett 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2015.04.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Vadagaonkar KS, Kalmode HP, Murugan K, Chaskar AC. I2 catalyzed tandem protocol for synthesis of quinoxalines via sp3, sp2 and sp C–H functionalization. RSC Adv 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c4ra08589b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
An efficient metal-free tandem protocol for the synthesis of quinoxalines via sp3, sp2 and sp C–H functionalization has been developed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hanuman P. Kalmode
- Department of Dyestuff Technology
- Institute of Chemical Technology
- Mumbai 400019
- India
| | | | - Atul C. Chaskar
- Department of Dyestuff Technology
- Institute of Chemical Technology
- Mumbai 400019
- India
- National Centre for Nanosciences and Nanotechnology
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Jayabharathi J, Ramanathan P, Thanikachalam V. Synthesis and optical properties of phenanthromidazole derivatives for organic electroluminescent devices. NEW J CHEM 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c4nj01515k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The external quantum efficiency roll-off may be due to triplet–triplet annihilation (TTA) and triplet–polaron annihilation (TPA).
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Jeena V, Robinson RS. Recent developments in one-pot tandem oxidation process coupling reactions. RSC Adv 2014. [DOI: 10.1039/c4ra06169a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The recent additions to the tandem oxidation process (TOP) research area are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vineet Jeena
- Department of Chemistry
- University of KwaZulu-Natal
- Pietermaritzburg, South Africa
| | - Ross S. Robinson
- Department of Chemistry
- University of KwaZulu-Natal
- Pietermaritzburg, South Africa
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Jeena V, Robinson RS. An environmentally friendly, cost effective synthesis of quinoxalines: the influence of microwave reaction conditions. Tetrahedron Lett 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2013.11.100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Aghapoor K, Mohsenzadeh F, Mohebi Morad M, Darabi HR. Sustainable approach to tandem catalysis: Expedient access to quinoxalines and pyrido[2,3-b]pyrazines from α-hydroxyketones via microwave-induced [(NH4)6Mo7O24·4H2O – PEG 300] polar paste catalyst system. CR CHIM 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.crci.2012.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Kumbhar A, Kamble S, Barge M, Rashinkar G, Salunkhe R. Brönsted acid hydrotrope combined catalyst for environmentally benign synthesis of quinoxalines and pyrido[2,3-b]pyrazines in aqueous medium. Tetrahedron Lett 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2012.03.097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Jeena V, Robinson RS. Convenient photooxidation of alcohols using dye sensitised zinc oxide in combination with silver nitrate and TEMPO. Chem Commun (Camb) 2012; 48:299-301. [DOI: 10.1039/c1cc15790f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Huang T, Jiang D, Chen J, Gao W, Ding J, Wu H. Silica Sulfuric Acid (SSA)/Polyethylene Glycol (PEG) as a Recyclable System for the Synthesis of Quinoxalines and Pyrazines. SYNTHETIC COMMUN 2011. [DOI: 10.1080/00397911.2010.517894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tieqiang Huang
- a College of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Wenzhou University , Wenzhou , China
| | - Danna Jiang
- a College of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Wenzhou University , Wenzhou , China
| | - Jiuxi Chen
- a College of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Wenzhou University , Wenzhou , China
| | - Wenxia Gao
- a College of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Wenzhou University , Wenzhou , China
| | - Jinchang Ding
- a College of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Wenzhou University , Wenzhou , China
- b Wenzhou Vocational and Technical College , Wenzhou , China
| | - Huayue Wu
- a College of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Wenzhou University , Wenzhou , China
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Padmavathy K, Nagendrappa G, Geetha K. A rapid synthesis of quinoxalines starting from ketones. Tetrahedron Lett 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2010.11.116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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